Contaminant Migration From Polymeric Pipes Used in Buried Potable Water Distribution Systems: A Review

REFERENCES

• Al-Malack , M. H. 2001 . Migration of lead from unplasticized polyvinyl chloride pipe . Journal of Hazardous Materials , 82 : 263 – 274 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Malack , M. H. 2005 . Effect of UV-radiation on the migration of vinyl chloride monomer from unplasticized PVC pipes . Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A , 39 : 145 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Malack , M. H. and Sheikheldin , S. Y. 2001 . Effect of solar radiation on the migration of vinyl chloride monomer from unplasticized PVC pipes . Water Research , 35 : 3283 – 3290 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Malack , M. H. , Sheikheldin , S. Y. , Fayad , N. M. and Khaja , N. M. 2000 . Effect of water quality parameters on the migration of vinyl chloride monomer from unplasticized PVC pipes . Water, Air, and Soil Pollution , 120 : 195 – 208 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American National Standards Institute/National Sanitation Foundation International . 2007 . Drinking water system components—health effects, ANSI/NSF 61 , Ann Arbor , MI : National Sanitation Foundation International .
   Google Scholar
• American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation . 2010 . Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (21st ed.) , Washington , DC : APHA, AWWA, WEF .
   Google Scholar
• American Society for Testing and Materials . 2010 . ASTM D3350-10, standard specification for polyethylene plastics pipe and fittings materials , Washington , DC : ASTM .
   Google Scholar
• American Water Works Association . 1999 . Standard for polyethylene (PE) pressure pipe and fittings, 4 in (100 mm) through 63 in (1,575 mm), for water distribution and transmission, ANSI/AWWA C906-99 , Denver , CO : AWWA .
   Google Scholar
• American Water Works Association . 2006 . Standard for cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) pressure pipes, 1/2 in (12 mm) through 3 in (76 mm) for water service, ANSI/AWWA C904–06 , Denver , CO : AWWA .
   Google Scholar
• American Water Works Association . 2007a . Standard for fiberglass pressure pipe, ANSI/AWWA C950-07 , Denver , CO : AWWA .
   Google Scholar
• American Water Works Association . 2007b . Standard for polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pressure pipe and fabricated fittings, 4 in through 12 in (100 mm through 300 mm), for water distribution, ANSI/AWWA C900–07 , Denver , CO : AWWA .
   Google Scholar
• American Water Works Association . 2009 . Standard for molecularly oriented polyvinyl chloride (PVCO) pressure pipe, 4 in through 24 in (100 mm through 600 mm), for water, wastewater, and reclaimed water service, ANSI/AWWA C909-09 , Denver , CO : AWWA .
   Google Scholar
• American Water Works Association . 2010 . Standard for polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pressure pipe and fabricated fittings, 14 in through 48 in (350 mm through 1200 mm), for water distribution, ANSI/AWWA C905-10 , Denver , CO : AWWA .
   Google Scholar
• Andersson , T. , Holmgren , M. H. , Nielsen , T. and Wesslen , B. 2004 . Degradation of low density polyethylene during extrusion. IV. Off-flavor compounds in extruded films of stabilized LDPE . Journal of Applied Polymer Science , 95 : 583 – 595 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ando , M. and Sayato , Y. 1984 . Studies on vinyl chloride migrating into drinking water from polyvinyl chloride pipe and reaction between vinyl chloride and chlorine . Water Research , 18 : 315 – 318 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anselme , C. , Bruchet , A. , Mallevialle , J. and Fiessingar , F. Influence of polyethylene pipes on tastes and odors of supplied water . Proceedings of the AWWA Annual Conference , pp. 1337 – 1359 .
   Google Scholar
• Anselme , C. , N’Guyen , K. , Bruchet , A. and Mallevialle , J. 1985a . Can polyethylene pipes impart odors in drinking water? . Environmental Technology , 6 : 477 – 488 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anselme , C. , N’Guyen , K. , Bruchet , A. and Mallevialle , J. 1985b . Characterization of low molecular weight products desorbed from polyethylene tubing . Science of the Total Environment , 47 : 371 – 384 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banzer , J. D. 1979 . The migration of vinyl chloride from PVC pipe into water . Journal of Vinyl Technology , 1 : 164 – 167 .
   Google Scholar
• Bauer , U. 1981 . Human exposure to environmental chemicals—investigations on volatile organic halogenated compounds in water, air, food, and human tissues . Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie und Hygiene, Abteilung, I., Originale B , 174 : 1 – 237 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baur , C. , Bongsoo , K. , Jenkins , P. E. and Cho , Y.-S. Performance analysis of SI engine with ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) as a blending component in motor gasoline and comparison with other blending components . 25th Proceedings of the Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference , Vol. 4 , pp. 337 – 342 .
   Google Scholar
• Berens , A. R. 1974 . The diffusion of vinyl chloride in poly(vinyl chloride) . Polymer Preprints , 15 : 203 – 208 .
   Google Scholar
• Berens , A. R. and Daniels , C. A. 1976 . Prediction of vinyl chloride monomer from rigid PVC pipes . Polymer Engineering and Science , 16 : 552 – 558 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boelens , A. H. M. 1960 . Lead release of hard PVC pipes . Water , 44 : 350 – 351 .
   Google Scholar
• Boettner , E. A. , Gwendolyn , L. B. , Hollongsworth , Z. and Aquino , R. 1981 . Organic and organotin compounds leached from PVC and CPVC pipe, EPA-600/1–81–062 , Cincinnati , OH : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .
   Google Scholar
• Brocca , D. , Arvin , E. and Mosbæk , H. 2002 . Identification of organic compounds migrating from polyethylene pipelines into drinking water . Water Research , 36 : 3675 – 3680 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brocca , D. , Arvin , E. and Mosbæk , H. in press . Quantification of organic compounds being released from polyethylene pipelines into drinking water . Environmental Science and Technology ,
   Google Scholar
• Burn , L. S. and Sullivan , A. P. 1993 . New uPVC water reticulation mains—the effect of commissioning procedures on the levels of extracted lead . Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology - Aqua , 42 : 135 – 145 .
   Google Scholar
• Burn , S. , Davis , P. , Schiller , T. , Tiganis , B. , Tjandraatmadja , G. , Cardy , M. , Gould , S. , Sadler , P. and Whittle , A. J. 2005 . Long-term performance prediction for PVC pipes , Denver , CO : AwwaRF .
   Google Scholar
• Camper , A. K. and Jones , W. L. 2000 . Factors affecting microbial growth in model distribution systems , Denver , CO : AWWA Research Foundation . Final Report
   Google Scholar
• Carthorne , B. , James , C. P. and Norries , M. 1990 . Effect of distribution on organic contaminants in potable water. Final Report to the Department of the Environment. DoE 2215-M/1 , Marlow , , England : WRc Environment .
   Google Scholar
• Colin , X. , Audouin , L. , Verdu , J. , Rozental-Evesque , M. , Rabaud , B. , Martin , F. and Bourgine , F. 2009 . Aging of polyethylene pipes transporting drinking water disinfected by chlorine dioxide. I. Chemical aspects . Polymer Engineering and Science , : 1429 – 1437 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comyn , J. 1985 . Polymer permeability , New York , NY : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Cosoveanu , G. 1967 . Studiu aspura toxicitatii tevilor din policlorura de vinil de fabricatie romaneasca si posibilitati de utilizare la instalatiile de apa potabila [Toxicity of PVC pipes made in Romania and their use in potable water installation] . Material and Plastics , 4 : 30 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Crane , R. I. 1994 . Taste and odour monitoring: Customer complaints, Report no. UM 1450 , Marlow , , England : WRc Environment . Common Interest Research Programme Ref. U-0313
   Google Scholar
• Crank , J. 1975 . The mathematics of diffusion (2nd ed.) , Oxford , , England : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , P. , Burn , S. , Gould , S. , Cardy , M. , Tjandraatmadja , G. and Sadler , P. 2007 . Long-term performance prediction for PE pipes. Final Report , Denver , CO : AwwaRF .
   Google Scholar
• Demir , A. 2010 . Glass reinforced plastic pipes, continuous manufacturing line. Technical Report Retrieved from http://www.ayhanozdemir.net/GRP%20PIPE%20TECHNICAL%20REPORT.htm
   Google Scholar
• Denberg , M. 2009 . Release of organic compounds from polymer pipes used in drinking water distribution , Lyngby , , Denmark : Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark . PhD thesis
   Google Scholar
• Denberg , M. , Arvin , E. and Hassager , O. 2007 . Modeling the release of organic compounds from polyethylene pipes to water . Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology -Aqua , 56 : 435 – 443 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietrich , A. M. , Whelton , A. J. and Gallagher , D. L. 2011 . Permeation of new and aged polymer water pipe , Denver , CO : Water Research Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• Dietz , G. R. , Banzer , J. D. and Miller , E. M. 1979 . Water extraction of additives from PVC pipe . Journal of Vinyl Technology , 1 : 161 – 163 .
   Google Scholar
• Dressman , R. C. and McFarren , E. F. 1978 . Determination of vinyl chloride migration from polyvinyl chloride pipe into water . Journal of the American Waterworks Association , 70 : 29 – 30 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durand , M. 2005 . Disinfectants and plumbing materials: Effects on sensory and chemical characteristics of drinking water , Blacksburg, Virginia , , USA : Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech . Master's Thesis
   Google Scholar
• Durand , M. and Dietrich , A. M. 2007 . Contributions of silane cross-linked PEX pipe to chemical/solvent odours in drinking water . Water Science and Technology , 55 : 153 – 160 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• EDAW . 2009 . Adoption of state regulations allowing the use of PEX tubing. Final Environmental Impact Report (FEIR) , Sacramento , CA : California Building Standards Commission .
   Google Scholar
• Edwards , M. A. , Triantafyllidou , S. and Best , D. 2009 . Elevated blood lead in young children due to lead-contaminated drinking water: Washington, DC, 2001−2004 . Environmental Science and Technology , 43 : 1618 – 1623 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farshad , M. and Necola , A. 2004 . Effect of aqueous environment on the long-term behavior of glass fiber-reinforced plastic pipes, test method . Polymer Testing , 23 : 163 – 167 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbein , L. 1979 . Potential halogenated industrial carcinogenic and mutagenic chemicals. I. Halogenated unsaturated hydrocarbons . Science of the Total Environment , 11 : 111 – 161 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forslund , J. 1991 . Influence of plastic materials on drinking water parameters Copenhagen , , Denmark Paper presented at the IWSA 18th International Water Supply Conference and Exhibition May 25–31
   Google Scholar
• Forsyth , D. S. , Dabeka , R. , Sun , W. F. and Dalglish , K. 1993 . “ Speciation of organotins in poly(vinyl chloride) products ” . In Food Additives and Contaminants: Part A: Chemistry, Analysis, Control, Exposure and Risk Assessment Vol. 10 , 531 – 534 .
   Google Scholar
• Flournoy , R. L. , Monroe , D. , Naima-Halim , C. and Vinita , K. Health effects from vinyl chloride monomer leaching from pre-1977 PVC pipe . Proceedings of the AWWA Annual Conference and Exposition , pp. 1211 – 1230 .
   Google Scholar
• Fristachi , A. , Xu , Y. , Rice , G. , Impellitteri , C. A. , Carlson-Lynch , H. and Little , J. C. 2009 . Using probabilistic modeling to evaluate human exposure to organotin in drinking water transported by polyvinyl chloride pipe . Risk Analysis , 29 : 1615 – 1628 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross , R. C. , Englebart , B. and Walter , S. Aqueous extraction of lead stabilizers from PVC compounds . Proceedings of the Annual Technical Conference for the Society of Plastic Engineers , Vol. 20 , pp. 529 – 531 .
   Google Scholar
• Heim , T. and Dietrich , A. M. 2007 . Sensory aspects and water quality impacts of chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water in contact with HDPE and cPVC pipe . Water Research , 41 : 757 – 764 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoch , M. 2001 . Organotin compounds in the environment: An overview . Applied Geochemistry , 16 : 719 – 743 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Impellitteri , C. A. , Evans , I. and Ravel , B. 2007 . Speciation of organotins in PVC pipe via X-ray absorption spectroscopy in leachates using GC-PFPD after derivitisation . Journal of Environmental Monitoring , 9 : 358 – 365 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iring , M. , Kelen , T. and Tüdös , F. 1979 . Initiated oxidation and auto-oxidation of polyethylene in trichlorobenzene solution . Polymer Degradation and Stability , 1 : 297 – 310 .
   Google Scholar
• Iring , M. and Tüdös , F. 1990 . Thermal oxidation of polyethylene and polypropylene: Effects of chemical structure and reaction conditions on the oxidation process . Progress in Polymer Science , 15 : 217 – 262 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jee , W. G. and Carter , S. J. Crosslinked polyethylene (PEX): An alternative to copper tubing . Proceedings of the Annual Technical Conference for the Society of Plastic Engineers , Vol. 3 , pp. 3798 – 3801 .
   Google Scholar
• Jirackova-Audouin , L. and Verdu , J. 1985 . Solubility and diffusivity of organotin stabilizers in nonplasticized PVC . European Polymer Journal , 21 : 421 – 426 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , R. W. and Clark , M. B. The long term behavior of organotins in PVC pipe . Proceedings of the Annual Technical Conference for the Society of Plastic Engineers , pp. 2878 – 2880 .
   Google Scholar
• Jones-Lepp , T. L. , Varner , K. E. and Hilton , B. A. 2001 . Speciation and detection of organotins from PVC pipe by micro-liquid chromatography-electrospray-ion trap mass spectrometry . Applied Organometallic Chemistry , 15 : 933 – 938 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khiari , D. , Barrett , S. , Chinn , R. , Bruchet , A. , Piriou , P. , Matia , L. , Ventura , F. , Suffett , I. M. , Gittleman , T. and Leutweiler , P. 2002 . Distribution generated taste-and-odor phenomena , Denver , CO : AwwaRF .
   Google Scholar
• Koch , A. 2004 . Gas chromatographic methods for detecting the release of organic compounds from polymeric materials in contact with drinking water , Gelsenkirchen , , Germany : Hygiene-Institut des Ruhrgebiets .
   Google Scholar
• Koh , L. L. , Wong , M. K. , Gan , L. M. and Yap , C. T. 1991 . Factors affecting the leaching of lead from UPVC pipes . Environmental Monitoring and Assessment , 19 : 203 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasheen , M. R. , Sharaby , C. M. , El-Kholy , N. G. , Elsherif , I. Y. and El-Wakeel , S. T. 2008 . Factors influencing lead and iron release from some Egyptian drinking water pipes . Journal of Hazardous Materials , 160 : 675 – 680 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , J. April 5, 2011 . San Jose, CA , , USA : San Jose State University . Reynolds Number for Drinking Water Flow in Potable Water Piping. Personal Communication,
   Google Scholar
• Lehtola , M. J. , Miettinen , I. T. , Keinänen , M. M. , Kekki , T. K. , Laine , O. , Hirvonen , Vartiainen , T. and Martikainen , P. J. 2004 . Microbiology, chemistry and biofilm development in a pilot drinking water distribution system with copper and plastic pipes . Water Research , 38 : 3769 – 3779 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loan , L. D. 1972 . Peroxide crosslinking reactions of polymers . Pure and Applied Chemistry , 30 : 173 – 180 .
   Google Scholar
• Marchesan , M. and Morran , J. 2004 . Tastes associated with products in contact with drinking water . Water Science and Technology , 49 : 227 – 231 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marti , T. 2005 . Fusible C-900™, Fusible C-905™, and Fusible PVC™: The development and application Orlando , FL Paper presented at the North American Society for Trenchless Technology (NASTT), NO-DIG Conference April 24–27
   Google Scholar
• Mazaev , V. T. and Slepnina , T. G. 1973 . Experimental data on hygienic standardization of dibutyltin sulfide in reservoir water . Gigiena i sanitarija , 8 : 10 – 15 .
   Google Scholar
• Momba , M. N. B. and Makala , N. 2004 . Comparing the effect of various pipe materials on biofilm formation in chlorinated and combined chlorine-chloraminated water systems . Water SA , 30 : 175 – 182 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy , J. 1996 . Additives for plastics handbook , Oxford , , England : Oxford Elsevier Advanced Technology .
   Google Scholar
• Ndiongue , S. , Huck , P. M. and Slawson , R. M. 2005 . Effects of temperature and biodegradable organic matter on control of biofilms by free chlorine in a model drinking water distribution system . Water Research , 39 : 953 – 964 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen , L. M. , Falkenberg , J. , Fuglsang , I. A. , Christensen , A. G. , Fischer , E. V. and Hansen , N. 2005 . Feltundersøgelse af vandforsyningernes plastrør [Field study of drinking water supply pipes]. Report no. 1049 , Copenhagen , , Denmark : Danish Ministry of the Environment .
   Google Scholar
• Nielsen , L. M. , Fuglsang , I. A. , Fischer , E. V. and Hansen , N. 2007 . Undersøgelse af PEX rør til drikkevandsbrμg [Study of PEX pipes for drinking water use]. Report no. 1167 , Copenhagen , , Denmark : Danish Ministry of the Environment .
   Google Scholar
• Nikals , P. and Meyer , W. 1961 . Auswanderung von Blei aus bleistabilisierten PVC-Rohren [The migration of lead from lead stabilized PVC pipes] . Kunstoffe , 51 : 2 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Ong , S. K. , Gaunt , J. , Mao , F. , Cheng , C.-L , Esteve-Agelet , L. and Hurburgh , C. 2008 . Impact of hydrocarbons on PE/PVC pipes and pipe gaskets , Denver , CO : AwwaRF .
   Google Scholar
• Packham , R. F. 1971a . The leaching of toxic stabilizers from unplasticized PVC water pipe: Part I—a critical study of laboratory test procedures . Water Treatment and Examination , 20 : 108 – 124 .
   Google Scholar
• Packham , R. F. 1971b . The leaching of toxic stabilizers from unplasticized PVC water pipe: Part II—a survey of lead levels in uPVC distribution systems . Water Treatment and Examination , 20 : 144 – 151 .
   Google Scholar
• Packham , R. F. 1971c . The leaching of toxic stabilizers from unplasticized PVC water pipe: Part III—the measurement of extractable lead in UPVC pipes . Water Treatment and Examination , 20 : 152 – 161 .
   Google Scholar
• Peacock , A. J. 2001 . The chemistry of polyethylene . Journal of Macromolecular Science Polymer Reviews. , C41 : 285 – 323 .
   Google Scholar
• Pinelli , F. , Bocchini , P. , Pozzi , R. and Galletti , G. 2010 . Chemical analysis applied to the development of a model for the determination of quality of PE pipes . Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis , 89 : 44 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• Piringer , O.-G. and Baner , A. L. 2000 . Plastic packaging materials for food , Weinheim , , Germany : Wiley-VCH .
   Google Scholar
• Plastic Pipe Institute . 2009 . Handbook of PE pipe , Washington , DC : PPI .
   Google Scholar
• Plastic Pipe Institute . 2010 . Technical report (TR)-2/2010, PPI PVC range composition listing of qualified ingredients , Washington , DC : PPI .
   Google Scholar
• Poels , C. L. M. and Dibbets , G. 1982 . Initial migration of lead from unplasticized polyvinylchloride drinking-water pipes . H₂O , 15 : 588 – 590 .
   Google Scholar
• Quevauviller , P. H. , Donard , O. F. X. and Bruchet , A. 1991 . Leaching of organotin compounds from poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) material . Applied Organometallic Chemistry , 5 : 125 – 129 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman , S. 2002 . PVC pressure pipes: Past, present, and future Houston, TX , , USA Paper presented at the Center for Innovative Grouting Materials and Technology (CIGMAT) Annual Conference and Exposition
   Google Scholar
• Rhodes , R. , Turssel , T. , Leong , L. Y. C. and Reich , K. D. 1980 . Solvent leaching from potable water plastic pipes. Final Report , Berkeley , CA : Hazard Alert System, Department of Health Services .
   Google Scholar
• Richardson , R. and Edwards , M. A. 2009 . Vinyl chloride and organotin stabilizers in water contacting new and aged PVC pipe, Final report #2991 , Denver , CO : Water Research Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• Rigal , S. and Danjou , J. 1999 . Tastes and odors in drinking water distribution systems related to the use of synthetic materials . Water Science and Technology , 40 : 203 – 208 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers , H. R. , Norris , M. W. and James , H. A. 2004 . Effects of materials of construction on tastes and odours in drinking water . Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology , 3 : 23 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• Sadiki , A.-D. and Williams , D. T. 1999 . A study on organotin levels in Canadian drinking water distributed through PVC pipes . Chemosphere , 38 : 1541 – 1548 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadiki , A.-I. , Williams , D. T. , Carrier , R. and Thomas , B. 1996 . Pilot study on the contamination of drinking water by organotin compounds . Chemosphere , 32 : 2389 – 2398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadiq , M. , Zaidi , T. H. , Al Muhanna , H. and Mian , A. A. 1997 . Effect of distribution network pipe material on drinking water quality . Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A , 32 : 445 – 454 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skjevrak , I. , Due , A. , Gjerstad , K. O. and Herikstad , H. 2003 . Volatile organic components migrating from plastic pipes (HDPE, PEX and PVC) into drinking water . Water Research , 37 : 1912 – 1920 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skjevrak , I. , Lund , V. , Ormerod , K. and Herikstad , H. 2005 . Volatile organic compounds in natural biofilm in polyethylene pipes supplied with lake water and treated water from the distribution network . Water Research , 39 : 4133 – 4141 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sombatsompop , N. , Sungsanit , K. and Thongpin , C. 2004 . Structural changes of PVC in PVC/LDPE melt-blends: effects of LDPE content and number of extrusions . Polymer Engineering and Science , 44 : 487 – 495 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stocchi , A. , Pellicano , A. , Rossi , J. P. , Bernal , C. and Montemartini , P. 2006 . Physical and water aging of glass fiber-reinforced plastic pipes . Composite Interfaces , 13 : 685 – 697 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanzi , D. J. and Andreasen , G. C. 2011 . Moving into the future . Civil Engineering , : 72 – 75 .
   Google Scholar
• Tomboulian , P. , Schweitzer , L. , Mullin , K. , Wilson , J. and Khiari , D. 2004 . Materials used in drinking water distribution systems: Contribution to taste-and-odor . Water Science and Technology , 49 : 219 – 226 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsvetanova , Z. 2006 . “ Study of biofilm formation on different pipe materials in a model of drinking water distribution system and its impact on microbiological water quality ” . In Chemicals as intentional and accidental global Environmental threats, NATO security through science series , 463 – 468 . Amsterdam , , the Netherlands : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Underground Solutions . 2010a . South Dakota fusible PVC project sets a record , Poway , CA : Underground Solutions .
   Google Scholar
• Underground Solutions . 2010b . Fused PVC pipe the answer for pipe bursting projects across the country: Rehab products , Poway , CA : Underground Solutions .
   Google Scholar
• Uni-Bell PVC Association . July 1994 . Investigation of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) contamination in Doniphan County, Kansas Rural Water District (RWD) #5 , Washington , DC : USEPA, Office of Drinking Water .
   Google Scholar
• Uni-Bell PVC Association . 2001 . Handbook of PVC pipe design and construction , Dallas , TX : Uni-Bell PVC Association .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 2002 . Deteriorating buried infrastructure: Management challenges and strategies , Washington , DC : USEPA .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Federal Register . 2009 . Drinking water contaminant candidate list 3—final Environmental Protection Agency [EPA-HQ-OW-2007–1189 FRL-8963–6]
   Google Scholar
• U.S. National Research Council . 1999 . Identifying future drinking water contaminants. Water Science and Technology Board, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources , Washington , DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• Villberg , K. , Veijanen , A. and Gustafsson , I. 1998 . Identification of off-flavor compounds in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) with different amounts of abscents . Polymer Engineering and Science , 38 : 922 – 925 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visintin , B. and Monteriolo , S. 1965 . Results of 4 yr experience in testing PVC pipes for water supply . Material and Plastics , 31 : 735 – 755 .
   Google Scholar
• Walter , R. K. , Lina , P.-H. , Edwards , M. A. and Richardson , R. E. 2011 . Investigation of factors affecting the accumulation of vinyl chloride in polyvinyl chloride piping used in drinking water distribution systems . Water Research , 45 : 2607 – 2615 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whelton , A. J. and Dietrich , A. M. 2009 . Critical considerations for the accelerated aging of high-density polyethylene potable water materials . Polymer Degradation and Stability , 94 : 1163 – 1175 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whelton , A. J. , Dietrich , A. M. and Gallagher , D. L. 2010 . Contaminant diffusion and solubility and material property differences between HDPE and PEX potable water pipes . Journal of Environmental Engineering , 136 : 227 – 237 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whelton , A. J. , Dietrich , A. M. and Gallagher , D. L. 2011a . The impact of chlorinated water exposure on contaminant diffusion and solubility for HDPE resin, HDPE, PEX-A and PEX-B pipes . Journal of Environmental Engineering , 137 : 559 – 568 .
   Google Scholar
• Whelton , A. J. , Duncan , T. V. , Koontz , J. L. and Nguyen , T. 2011b . Nanoparticle release from polymer nanocomposites and food packaging: Current progress & beyond Boston , MA Paper presented at Proceedings of the Nanotechnology Conference and Exposition June 13–16
   Google Scholar
• Wong , M. K. , Gan , L. M. and Koh , L. L. 1988 . Temperature effects on the leaching of lead from unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) pipes . Water Research , 22 : 1399 – 1403 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong , M. K. , Gan , L. M. , Koh , L. L. and Lum , O. L. 1990 . Some further studies on factors affecting the leaching of lead from unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) pipes . Water Research , 24 : 451 – 455 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2004 . Dialkyltins in drinking water: Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking water quality , Geneva , , Switzerland : WHO .
   Google Scholar
• Wu , W. , Roberts , R. S. , Chung , Y.-C. , Ernst , W. R. and Havlicek , S. C. 1989 . The extraction of organotin compounds from polyvinyl chloride pipe . Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology , 18 : 839 – 843 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , J. , Kim , D. and Lee , T. 2010 . Microbial diversity in biofilms on water distribution pipes of different materials . Water Science and Technology , 61 : 163 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng , X.-G. , Tang , L.-H. , Zhang , N. , Gao , Q.-H. , Zhang , C.-F. and Zhu , Z.-B. 2003 . Dehydrochlorination of PVC materials at high temperature . Energy and Fuels , 17 : 896 – 900 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar