Underrepresentation and Symbolic Annihilation of Socially Disenfranchised Groups (“Out Groups”) in Animated Cartoons

REFERENCES

• Akers , R. L. ( 1973 ). Deviant behavior . Belmont , CA : Wadsworth .
   Google Scholar
• Aubrey , J. S. & Harrison , K. ( 2004 ). The gender-role content of children's favorite television programs and its links to their gender-related perceptions . Media Psychology , 6 , 111 – 146 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. ( 1971 ). Social learning theory . New York : General Learning Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cole , J. ( 1997 ). The UCLA television violence report 1996 . Los Angeles : UCLA Center for Communication Policy .
   Google Scholar
• Coltraine , S. & Messineo , M. ( 2000 ). The perpetuation of subtle prejudice: Race and gender imagery in 1990s television advertising . Sex Roles , 42 , 363 – 389 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eschholz , S. Bufkin , J. , & Long , J. ( 2002 ). Symbolic reality bites: Women and racial/ethnic minorities in modern film . Sociological Spectrum , 22 , 299 – 334 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fouts , G. & Inch , R. ( 2005 ). Homosexuality in TV situation comedies: Characters and verbal comments . Journal of Homosexuality , 49 , 35 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerbner , G. & Gross , L. ( 1976 ). Living with television: The violence profile . Journal of Communication , 26 , 173 – 199 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson , C. & Jung , K. ( 2002 ). Historical census statistics on population totals by race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic origin, 1790 to 1990, for the United States, regions, divisions, and states . Washington , DC : U.S. Census Bureau .
   Google Scholar
• Glascock , J. & Preston-Schreck , C. (2004). Gender and racial stereotypes in daily newspaper comics: A time-honored tradition? Sex Roles , 51, 423–431.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg , B. S. ( 1982 ). Television and role socialization: An overview . In D. Pearl , L. Bouthilet , & J. Lazar (Eds.), Television and behavior: Ten years of scientific progress and implications for the eighties. Volume II: Technical reviews (pp. 179 – 190 ). Rockville , MD : National Institute of Mental Health .
   Google Scholar
• Harwood , J. & Anderson , K. ( 2002 ). The presence and portrayal of social groups on prime-time television . Communication Reports , 15 , 81 – 97 .
   Google Scholar
• Jason , L. A. & Fries , M. ( 2004 ). Helping parents reduce children's television viewing . Research on Social Work Practice , 14 , 121 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein , H. & Shiffman , K. S. ( 2005 ). Thin is ‘in’ and stout is ‘out’: What animated cartoons tell viewers about body weight . Eating and Weight Disorders , 10 , 107 – 116 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein , H. & Shiffman , K. S. ( 2006 ). Race-related content of animated cartoons . Howard Journal of Communications , 17 , 163 – 182 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein , H. , Shiffman , K. S. , & Welka , D. A. ( 1996 ). How animated cartoons produced between 1930 and the present have portrayed the elderly . Paper presentation at the annual meeting of the Society for the Study of Social Problems , New York City , August 15–17 .
   Google Scholar
• Klein , H. , Shiffman , K. S. , & Welka , D. A. ( 2000 ). Gender-related content of animated cartoons, 1930 to the present . Advances in Gender Research , 4 , 291 – 317 .
   Google Scholar
• Lauzen , M. M. & Dozier , D. M. ( 2005 ). Maintaining the double standard: Portrayals of age and gender in popular films . Sex Roles , 52 , 437 – 446 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lear , M. W. ( 1968, March 10 ). What do these women want? The second feminist wave . New York Times Magazine , pp. 24 – 25 , 50–62 .
   Google Scholar
• Lenberg , J. ( 1991 ). The encyclopedia of animated cartoons . New York : Facts on File .
   Google Scholar
• Maltin , L. ( 1980 ). Of mice and magic: A history of American animated cartoons . New York : Plume .
   Google Scholar
• McConatha , J. T. , Schnell , F. , & McKenna , A. ( 1999 ). Description of older adults as depicted in magazine advertisements . Psychological Reports , 85 , 1051 – 1056 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald , J. ( 2007 ). Polynomial regression . Retrieved on November 19, 2007 http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/statcurvreg.html .
   Google Scholar
• McWhirter , D. , Sanders , S. , & Reinisch , J. (Eds.). ( 1990 ). Homosexuality/heterosexuality . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Merskin , D. ( 1998 ). Sending up signals: A survey of Native American media use and representation in the mass media . Howard Journal of Communications , 9 , 333 – 345 .
   Google Scholar
• Mosher , W. , Chandra , A. , & Jones , J. ( 2005 ). Sexual behavior and selected health measures: Men and women 15–44 years of age, United States, 2002 . Hyattsville , MD : National Center for Health Statistics .
   Google Scholar
• Ohye , B. Y. & Daniel , J. H. ( 1999 ). The “other” adolescent girls: Who are they? In N. G. Johnson & M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Beyond appearance: A new look at adolescent girls (pp. 115 – 119 ). Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Paik , H. & Comstock , G. ( 1994 ). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis . Communication Research , 21 , 516 – 546 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedhazur , E. J. ( 1982 ) . Multiple regression in behavioral research: Explanation and prediction , (2nd ed.) . New York : Holt, Rinehart, and Winston .
   Google Scholar
• Sell , R. L. , Wells , J. A. , & Wypij , D. (1995). The prevalence of homosexual behavior and attraction in the United States, the United Kingdom, and France: Results of national population-based samples. Archives of Sexual Behavior , 24, 235–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrum , L. J. , Wyler , R. S. , Jr. , & O'Guinn , T. C. ( 1998 ). The effects of television consumption on social perceptions: The use of priming procedures to investigate psychological processes . Journal of Consumer Research , 24 , 447 – 458 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Signorielli , N. & Morgan , M. ( 1990 ). Cultivation analysis: New directions in media effects research . Newbury Park , CA : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Singer , M. I. , Slovak , K. , Frierson , T. , & York , P. ( 1998 ). Viewing preferences, symptoms of psychological trauma, and violent behaviors among children who watch television . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 37 , 1041 – 1048 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitzer , B. L. , Henderson , K. A. , & Zivian , M. T. ( 1999 ). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: A comparison over four decades . Sex Roles , 40 , 545 – 565 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern , S. R. ( 2005 ). Self-absorbed, dangerous, and disengaged: What popular films tell us about teenagers . Mass Communication and Society , 8 , 23 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Tiggeman , M. & Pickering , A. S. ( 1996 ). Role of television in adolescent women's body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness . International Journal of Eating Disorders , 20 , 199 – 203 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuchman , G. ( 1978 ). The symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media . In G. Tuchman , A. K. Daniels , & J. Benet (Eds.), Hearth and home: Images of women in the mass media (pp. 3 – 38 ). New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau . ( 2000 ). Statistical abstract of the United States . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office .
   Google Scholar
• White , J. D. ( 2002 ). Bisexuals who kill: Hollywood's bisexual crimewave, 1985–1998 . Journal of Bisexuality , 2 , 41 – 54 .
   Google Scholar
• Williams , T. M. , Zabrack , M. L. , & Joy , L. A. ( 1982 ). The portrayal of aggression on North American television . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 12 , 360 – 380 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodard , E. H. , IV. ( 1999 ). The 1999 state of children's television report: Programming for children over broadcast and cable television . Philadelphia : Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania .
   Google Scholar