References
- Aguirre, A. J., Rodriguez, E., & Simmers, J. K. (2011). The cultural production of Mexican identity in the U.S.: An examination of the Mexican threat narrative. Social Identities, 17(5), 695–707. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2011.595209
- Arendt, F. (2015). Toward a dose-response account of media priming. Communication Research, 42(8), 1089–1115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650213482970
- Atwell Seate, A., & Mastro, D. (2016). Media’s influence on immigration attitudes: An intergroup threat theory approach. Communication Monographs, 83(2), 194–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2015.1068433
- Balmas, M. (2014). When fake news becomes real: Combined exposure to multiple news sources and political attitudes of inefficacy, alienation, and cynicism. Communication Research, 41(3), 430–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650212453600
- Berg, J. A. (2009). White public opinion toward undocumented immigrants: Threat and interpersonal environment. Sociological Perspectives, 52(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2009.52.1.39
- Bernard, H. R., & Bernard, H. R. (2012). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. SAGE Publications.
- Brennen, B. (2017). Making sense of lies, deceptive propaganda, and fake news. Journal of Media Ethics, 32(3), 179–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/23736992.2017.1331023
- Brown, C. S., Ali, H., Stone, E. A., & Jewell, J. A. (2017). U.S. children's stereotypes and prejudicial attitudes toward Arab Muslims. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 17(1), 60–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/asap.12129
- Cerase, A., & Santoro, C. (2018). From racial hoaxes to media hypes: Fake news’ real consequences. In Vasterman P. (Ed.), From media hype to Twitter storm: News explosions and their impact on issues, crises, and public opinion (pp. 333–354). Amsterdam University Press.
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.
- Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE Publications.
- De Keersmaecker, J., & Roets, A. (2017). fake news’: Incorrect, but hard to correct. The role of cognitive ability on the impact of false information on social impressions. Intelligence, 65, 107–110. https://doi.org/doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2017.10.005
- de Zuniga, H. G., Correa, T., & Valenzuela, S. (2012). Selective exposure to cable news and immigration in the U.S.: The relationship between Fox News, CNN, and attitudes toward Mexican immigrants. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 56(4), 597–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2012.732138
- Douglas, C. (2018). Religion and fake news: Faith-based alternative information ecosystems in the US and Europe. The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 16(1), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2018.1433522
- Downey, R. G., & King, C. (1998). Missing data in Likert ratings: A comparison of replacement methods. The Journal of General Psychology, 125(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309809595542
- Eitam, B., & Higgins, E. T. (2010). Motivation in mental accessibility: Relevance of a representation (ROAR) as a new framework. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(10), 951–967. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00309.x
- Esses, V. M., Medianu, S., & Lawson, A. S. (2013). Uncertainty, threat, and the role of the media in promoting the dehumanization of immigrants and refugees. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 518–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12027
- Estrada, E. P., Ebert, K., & Lore, M. H. (2016). Apathy and antipathy: Media coverage of restrictive immigration legislation and the maintenance of symbolic boundaries. Sociological Forum, 31(3), 555–576. 12262 https://doi.org/10.1111/socf
- Evon, D. (2015, August 26). Mexico-Guatemala Border Wall. https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/mexico-guatemala-border/
- Farris, E. M., & Mohamed, H. S. (2018). Picturing immigration: How the media criminalizes immigrants. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 6(4), 814–824. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1484375
- Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
- Figenschou, T. U., & Thorbjørnsrud, K. (2015). Faces of an invisible population: Human interest framing of irregular immigration news in the United States, France, and Norway. American Behavioral Scientist, 59(7), 783–801. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764215573256
- Fryberg, S. A., Stephens, N. M., Covarrubias, R., Markus, H. R., Carter, E. D., Laiduc, G. A., & Salido, A. J. (2012). How the media frames the immigration debate: The critical role of location and politics. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 12(1), 96–112. 1530-2415.2011.01259.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j
- Gattino, S., & Tartaglia, S. (2015). The effect of television viewing on ethnic prejudice against immigrants: A study in the Italian context. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 44, 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.11.004
- Gniewosz, B., & Noack, P. (2015). Parental influences on adolescents’ negative attitudes toward illegal immigrants. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(9), 1787–1802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0291-3
- Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460–476. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.460
- Higgins, E. T. (1996). Knowledge activation: Accessibility, applicability, and salience. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 133–168). Guilford.
- Higgins, E. T., Eitam, B. (2014). Priming…Shmiming: It’s about knowing when and why stimulated memory representations become active. Social Cognition, 32(Supplement), 225–242. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.supp.225
- Jackson, L. (2010). Images of Islam in US media and their educational implications. Educational Studies, 46(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131940903480217
- Jang, S. M., & Kim, J. K. (2018). Third person effects of fake news: Fake news regulation and media literacy interventions. Computers in Human Behavior, 80, 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.034
- Jeong-Woo, J., Eun-Ju, L., & Soo, Y. (2019). What debunking of misinformation does and doesn’t. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networks, 22, 423–427.
- Kim, S., Carvalho, J. P., Davis, A. G., & Mullins, A. M. (2011). The view of the border: News framing of the definition, causes, and solutions to illegal immigration. Mass Communication and Society, 14(3), 292–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205431003743679
- Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. The Guildford Press.
- Knoll, B. R., Redlawsk, D. P., & Sanborn, H. (2014). Response to “Framing unauthorized immigrants: The effects of labels on evaluations,” by Ommundsen, et al. (2014). Psychological Reports, 115(3), 913–917. https://doi.org/10.2466/17.PR0.115c28z2
- Lee, S. A., Gibbons, J. A., Thompson, J. M., & Timani, H. S. (2009). The Islamophobia Scale: Instrument development and initial validation. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 19(2), 92–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508610802711137
- Loersch, C., & Payne, B. K. (2011). The situated inference model an integrative account of the effects of primes on perception, behavior, and motivation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(3), 234–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406921
- Loersch, C., & Payne, B. K. (2014). Situated inference and the what, who, and where of priming. Social Cognition, 32(Supplement), 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.supp.137
- Lopez Moreno, J. H. (2008). Media influence on perceptions toward Mexican undocumented immigrants living in the U.S. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68, 7710.
- Mastro, D. (2009). Effects of racial and ethnic stereotyping. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 325–341). Taylor and Francis.
- McCartney, K., & Rosenthal, R. (2000). Effect size, practical importance, and social policy for children. Child Development, 71(1), 173–180. https://doi.org/doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00131
- McKeever, B. W., Riffe, D., & Carpentier, F. D. (2012). Perceived hostile media bias, presumed media influence, and opinions about immigrants and immigration. Southern Communication Journal, 77(5), 420–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2012.691602
- Mihailidis, P., & Viotty, S. (2017). Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: Civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in ‘post-fact’ society. American Behavioral Scientist, 61(4), 441–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764217701217
- Muthusubbarayan, M. (2018). Fake news: What countries around the world are doing to combat the epidemic. https://qrius.com/fake-news-countries-combat-epidemic/
- Nguyen, M. (2017, February 3). Real or not real: The truth behind fake news. https://northwesternbusinessreview.org/real-or-not-real-the-truth-behind-fake-news-3d21e5350591
- Ostfeld, M. (2017). The backyard politics of attitudes toward immigration. Political Psychology, 38(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12314
- Patel, J. (2018). Do Muslims commit 95% of rapes in India? Nope, that’s fake news. https://www.thequint.com/news/webqoof/fake-news-muslims-commit-95-percent-rape-india
- Pew Research Center. (2018, September 10). News use across social media platforms 2018. https://www.journalism.org/2018/09/10/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2018/
- Pew Research Center. (2020, January 24). Americans are divided by party in the sources they turn to for political news. Retrieved from https://www.journalism.org/2020/01/24/americans-are-divided-by-party-in-the-sources-they-turn-to-for-political-news/
- Punch, K. F. (2013). Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. SAGE Publications.
- Ramasubramanian, S. (2007). Media-based strategies to reduce racial stereotypes activated by news stories. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(2), 249–264. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900708400204
- Rapp, D., & Salovich, N. (2018). Can’t we just disregard fake news? The consequences of exposure to inaccurate information. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5(2), 232–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732218785193
- Roskos-Ewoldsen, D. R., Klinger, M. R., & Roskos-Ewoldsen, B. R. (2007). Media priming: A meta-analysis. In R. W. Preiss, B. M. Gayle, N. Burrell, M. Allen, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Mass media effects research (pp. 53–80). Erlbaum.
- Rubin, M. (2012). Social class differences in social integration among students in higher education: A meta-analysis and recommendations for future research. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 5(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026162
- Rubin, M., & Wright, C. L. (2015). Age differences explain social class differences in students’ friendship at university: Implications for transition and retention. Higher Education, 70(3), 427–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9844-8
- Rubin, M., & Wright, C. L. (2017). Time and money explain social class differences in students’ social integration at university. Studies in Higher Education, 42(2), 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1045481
- Saleem, M., Prot, S., Anderson, C. A., & Lemieux, A. F. (2017). Exposure to Muslims in media and support for public policies harming Muslims. Communication Research, 44(6), 841–869. https://doi.org/doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215619214
- Schemer, C. (2012). The influence of news media on stereotypic attitudes toward immigrants in a political campaign. Journal of Communication, 62(5), 739–757. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01672.x
- Sowards, S. K., & Pineda, R. D. (2013). Immigrant narratives and popular culture in the U.S.: Border spectacle, unmotivated sympathies, and individualized responsibilities. Western Journal of Communication, 77(1), 72–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2012.693648
- Steinberg, S. L. (2004). Undocumented immigrants or illegal aliens? Southwestern media portrayals of Latino immigrants. Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, 28(1), 109–133.
- Taras, R. (2013). Islamophobia never stands still’: Race, religion, and culture. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(3), 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2013.734388
- Tartakovsky, E., & Walsh, S. D. (2016). Testing a new theoretical model for attitudes toward illegal immigrants: The case of social workers’ attitudes toward asylum seekers in Israel. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 47(1), 72–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022115613860
- Timberlake, J. M., & Williams, R. H. (2012). Stereotypes of U. S. immigrants from four global regions. Social Science Quarterly, 93(4), 867–890. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00860.x
- Twala, B. (2009). An empirical comparison for techniques for handling incomplete data using decision trees. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 23(5), 373–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/08839510902872223
- U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. (2019). Fiscal year 2018 ICE enforcement and removal operations report. https://www.ice.gov/doclib/about/offices/ero/pdf/eroFY2018Report.pdf
- Valentino, N. A., Brader, T., & Jardina, A. E. (2013). Immigration opposition among U.S. Whites: General ethnocentrism or media priming of attitudes about Latinos? Political Psychology, 34(2), 149–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14677-9221.2012.00928.x
- Vargo, C. J., Guo, L., & Amazeen, M. A. (2018). The agenda-setting power of fake news: A big data analysis of the online media landscape from 2014 to 2016. New Media & Society, 20(5), 2028–2049. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817712086
- Watson, B. R., & Riffe, D. (2013). Perceived threat, immigration policy support, and media coverage: Hostile media and presumed influence. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 25(4), 459–479. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/eds032
- Wentura, D., & Rothermund, K. (2014). Priming is not priming is not priming. Social Cognition, 32(Supplement), 47–67.
- Wright, C. L., Defrancesco, T., Hamilton, C., & Machado, L. (2019). The influence of media portrayals of immigration and refugees on consumer attitudes: A experimental design. Howard Journal of Communications, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2019.1649762