REFERENCES
- Gold JM, Harvey PD. Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Psychiatr Clin N Am 1993;16:295–312.
- Saykin AJ, Gur RC, Gur RE, Mozeley D, Mozeley LH, Resnick SM, et al. Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia. Se- lective impairment in memory and learning. Arch Gen Psychi- atry 1991;48:618–24.
- Rund BR. A review of longitudinal studies of cognitive func tions in schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Bull 1998;24:425–35.
- Davidson M, Reichenberg A, Rabinowitz J, Weiser M, Kap- lan Z, Mark M. Behavioral and intellectual markers for schizophrenia in apparently healthy male adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1328–35.
- Heaton RK, Pendleton MG. Use of neuropsychological tests to predict patients’ everyday functioning. J Consult Clin Psy- chol 1981;49:807–21.
- Green MF. What are the functional consequences of neurocog- nitive deficits in schizophrenia? Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:321–30.
- Ho BC, Miller D, Nopoulos P, Andreason NC. A comparative effectiveness study of risperidone and olanzapine in the treat- ment of schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;10:658–63.
- Keefe RS, Moh RC, Losonczy MF, Davidson M, Silverman JM, Kendler KS, et al. Characteristics of very poor outcome schizo- phrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1987;144:889–95.
- Bleuler M. Schizophrenic deterioration. Br J Psychiatry 1983; 143:78–9.
- Ciompi L. Catamnestic long-term study on the course of life and aging of schizophrenics. Schizophr Bull 1980;6:606–18.
- Harding CM, Brooks GW, Ashikaga T, Strauss JS, Breier A. The Vermont Longitudinal Study of Persons with Severe Men- tal Illness, II: Long term outcome of subjects who retrospec- tively met DSM-III criteria for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1987;144:727–35.
- Belitsky R, McGlashan T. The manifestations of schizophrenia in late life: a dearth of data. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:683–5.
- Davidson M, Harvey PD, Powchik P, Parrella M, White L, Knobler HY, et al. Severity of symptoms in chronically institu- tionalized geriatric schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:197–207.
- Bartels SJ, Mueser KT, Miles KM. Functional impairments in elderly patients with schizophrenia and major affective disor- ders living in the community: social skills, living skills, and behavior problems. Behav Ther 1997;28:43–63.
- Goldman HH, Feder J, Scanlon W. Chronic mental patients in nursing homes: reexamining data from the National Nursing Home Survey. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1986;37:269–72.
- White L, Parrella M, McCrystal-Simon J, Harvey PD, Masiar S, Davidson M. Characteristics of elderly psychiatric patients re- tained in a state hospital during downsizing: a prospective study with replication. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;12:474–80.
- Bartels SJ, Mueser KT, Miles KM. A comparative study of elderly patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in nursing homes and the community. Schizophr Res 1997;30:181–90.
- Harvey PD, Howanitz E, Parrella M, White L, Davidson M, Mohs RC, et al. Symptoms, cognitive functioning, and adap- tive skills in geriatric patients with lifelong schizophrenia: a comparison across treatment sites. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155:1080–6.
- Jeste DV, Harris MJ, Krull A, Kuck J, McAdams LA, Heaton R. Clinical and neuropsychological characteristics of patients with late-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1995;172:722–30.
- Heaton R, Paulsen JS, McAdams LA, Kuck J, Zisook S, Braff D, et al. Neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenics. Relationship to age, chronicity, and dementia. Arch Gen Psy- chiatry 1994;51:469–76.
- Eyler Zorrilla LT, Heaton RK, McAdams LA, Zisook S, Harris MJ, Jeste DV. Cross-sectional study of older outpatients with schizophrenia and healthy comparison subjects: no differences in age-related cognitive decline. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:1324–6.
- Mattis S. Dementia Rating Scale. Odessa, Florida: Psycholog- ical Assessment Resources, 1973.
- Palmer BW, Heaton RK, Paulsen JS, Kuck J, Braff D, Harris MJ, et al. Is it possible to be schizophrenic and neuropsycho- logically normal? Neuropsychology 1997;11:437–47.
- Klapow J, Evans J, Patterson, TL, Heaton RK, Koch WL, Jeste DV. Direct assessment of functional status in older patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1022–4.
- Arnold SE, Gur RE, Shapiro RM, Fisher KR, Moberg PJ, Gib- ney MR, et al. Prospective clinicopathological studies of schizo- phrenia: accrual and assessment of patients. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:731–7.
- Harvey PD, Leff J, Trieman N, Anderson J, Davidson M. Cog- nitive impairment in chronic schizophrenic patients: a cross- national study in New York and London. Int J Geriatr Psychi- atry 1997;12:1001–7.
- Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. “Mini-Mental State.” A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 1975;12:189–98.
- Crow TJ, Stevens M. Age disorientation in chronic schizophre- nia: the nature of the cognitive deficit. Br J Psychiatry 1978; 133:137–42.
- Buhrich N, Crow TJ, Johnstone E, Owens DG. Age disorien- tation in chronic schizophrenia is not associated with pre- morbid intellectual impairment or past physical treatment. Br J Psychiatry 1988;152:466–9.
- Liddle PF, Crow TJ. Age disorientation in chronic schizophre- nia is associated with global cognitive deficit. Br J Psychiatry 1984;144:193–9.
- Goldberg TE, Kleinman JE, Daniel DG, Myslobodsky MS, Ragland JD, Weinberger DR. Dementia praecox revisited. Age disorientation, mental status, and ventricular enlargement. Br J Psychiatry 1988;153:187–90.
- Stevens M, Crow TJ, Bowman MJ, Coles EC. Age disorienta- tion in schizophrenia: a constant prevalence of 25 per cent in a chronic mental hospital population? Br J Psychiatry 1978; 133:130–6.
- Lombardi J, Harvey PD, White L, Parrella M, Powchik P, Da- vidson M. Age disorientation in chronically hospitalized pa- tients with mood disorders. Psychiatry Res 1996;60:87–90.
- Evans JD, Negron AE, Palmer BW, Paulsen JS, Heaton RK, Jeste DV. Cognitive deficits and psychopathology in institu- tionalized versus community-dwelling elderly schizophrenia patients. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1999;12:11–5.
- Putnam KM, Harvey PD. Memory performance of geriatric and nongeriatric chronic schizophrenic patients: a cross- sectional study. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 1999;5:494–501.
- Delis DC, Kramer JH, Kaplan E, Ober BA. The California Ver- bal Learning Test: research edition. San Antonio, Texas: Psy- chological Corporation, 1987.
- Paulsen JS, Heaton RK, Sadek JR, Perry W, Jeste DV. The nature of learning and memory impairments in schizophrenia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 1995;1:88–99.
- Harvey PD, Mohs RC, Davidson M. Leukotomy and aging in chronic schizophrenia: a followup study 40 years after psycho- surgery. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:723–32.
- Heaton RK, Chelune GJ, Talley JL, Kay GC, Curtiss G. Wis- consin Card Sorting Test (WCST) manual—revised and ex- panded. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1993.
- Perlick D, Mattis S, Stastny P, Teresi J. Neuropsychological discriminators of long-term inpatient or outpatient status in chronic schizophrenia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1992; 4:428–34.
- Heaton RK, Drexler, M. Clinical neuropsychological findings in schizophrenia and aging. In: Miller NE, Cohen GD, eds. Schizophrenia and aging. New York: Gulford Press, 1987: 145–61.
- Hyde TM, Nawroz S, Goldberg TE, Bigelow LB, Strong D, Os- trem JL, et al. Is there cognitive decline in schizophrenia? A cross-sectional study. Br J Psychiatry 1994;164:494–500.
- Chen EY, Lam LC, Chen RY, Nguyen DG. Neurological signs, age, and illness duration in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 1996;184:339–45.
- Mockler D, Riordan J, Sharma T. Memory and intellectual deficits do not decline with age in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1997;26:1–7.
- Harvey PD, Lombardi J, Leibman M, White L, Parrella M, Powchik P, et al. Verbal fluency deficits in geriatric and non- geriatric chronic schizophrenic patients. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997;9:584–90.
- Granholm E, Morris S, Asarnow RF, Chock D, Jeste DV. Accel- erated age-related decline in processing resources in schizo- phrenia: evidence from pupillary responses recorded during the span of apprehension task. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2000; 6:30–43.
- Fucetola R, Seidman LJ, Kremen WS, Faraone SV, Goldstein JM, Tsuang MT. Age and neuropsychologic function in schizo- phrenia: a decline in executive abilities beyond that observed in healthy volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:137–46.
- Sweeney JA, Haas GL, Li S. Neuropsychological and eye movement abnormalities in first-episode and chronic schizo- phrenia. Schizophr Bull 1992;18:283–93.
- Moberg PJ, Doty RL, Turetsky BI, Arnold SE, Mahr RN, Gur RC, et al. Olfactory identification deficits in schizophrenia: correlation with duration of illness. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154:1016–8.
- Johnstone EC, Owens DG, Gold A, Crow TJ, MacMillan JF. Institutionalization and the defects of schizophrenia. Br J Psy- chiatry 1981;139:195–203.
- Psychological Corporation. WAIS-III and WMS-III technical manual. San Antonio, Texas: Psychological Corporation, 1997.
- Gold JM, Randolph C, Carpenter CJ, Goldberg TE, Wein- berger DR. Forms of memory failure in schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 1992;101:487–94.
- Harvey PD, Moriarty PJ, Friedman JI, Parrella M, White L, Mohs RC, et al. Differential preservation of cognitive functions in geriatric patients with lifelong chronic schizophrenia: less impairment in reading compared with other skill areas. Biol Psychiatry 2000;47:962–8.
- Jastak, S. The Wide-Range Achievement Test—revised. Wil- mington, Delaware: Jastak Associates, 1984.
- Schaie KW. The course of adult intellectual development. Am Psychol 1994;49:304–13.
- Crum RM, Anthony JC, Bassett SS, Folstein MF. Population- based norms for the Mini-Mental State Examination by age and education level. JAMA 1993;269:2386–91.
- Prohovnik I, Dwork AJ, Kaufman MA, Wilson N. Alzheimer- type neuropathology in elderly schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:805–16.
- Davidson M, Harvey PD, Welsh K, Powchik P, Putnam KM, Mohs, RC. Cognitive functioning in late-life schizophrenia: a comparison of elderly schizophrenic patients and patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:1274–9.
- Morris JC, Heyman A, Mohs RC, Hughes JP, Van Belle G, Fil- lenbaum G, et al. The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD), part I: Clinical and neuropsy- chological assessment of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 1989; 39:1159–65.
- Harvey PD, Lombardi J, Leibman M, Parrella W, White L, Mohs RC, et al. Performance of chronic schizophrenic patients on cognitive neuropsychological measures sensitive to demen- tia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1996;11:621–7.
- Welsh KA, Butters N, Hughes J, Mohs RC, Heyman A. Detec- tion of abnormal memory decline in mild cases of Alzheimer’s disease using CERAD neuropsychological measures. Arch Neurol 1991;48:278–81.
- Friedman J, Harvey PD, Moriarty PJ, White L, Parrella M, McGurk SR, et al. The course of cognitive impairment in schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease, and normal elderly: a six- year longitudinal study. Am J Psychiatry [In press].
- Davis KL, Buchsbaum MS, Shihabuddin L, Spiegel-Cohen J, Metzger M, Frecska E, et al. Ventricular enlargement in poor- outcome schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1998;43:783–93.
- Harvey PD, White L, Parrella M, Putnam KM, Kincaid MM, Powchik P, et al. The longitudinal stability of cognitive impair- ment in schizophrenia: Mini-Mental State scores at one- and two-year follow-ups in geriatric in-patients. Br J Psychiatry 1995;166:630–3.
- Harvey PD, Silverman JM, Mohs RC, Powchik P, David- son M, Davis KL. Cognitive decline in late-life schizophrenia: a longitudinal study of geriatric chronically hospitalized pa- tients. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:32–40.
- Berg L. Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR). Psychopharmacol Bull 1988;24:637–9.
- Harvey PD, Parrella M, White L, Mohs RC, Davidson M, Davis KL. Convergence of cognitive and adaptive decline in late-life schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1999;35:77–84.
- Patterson TL, Klapow JC, Eastham JH, Heaton RK, Evans JD, Koch WL, et al. Correlates of functional status in older patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 1998;80:41–52.
- Shaw WS, Patterson TL, Semple SJ, Halpain MC, Koch WL, Harris MJ, et al. Use of community support services by middle-aged and older patients with psychotic disorders. Psychiatr Serv 2000;51:506–12.
- Powchik P, Davidson M, Haroutunian V, Gabriel S, Purohit D,Perl D, et al. Postmortem studies in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1998;24:325–42.
- Purohit DP, Davidson M, Perl DP, Powchik P, Haroutunian VH, Bierer LM, et al. Severe cognitive impairments in elderly schizophrenic patients: a clinicopathologic study. Biol Psychia- try 1993;33:255–60.
- Purohit DP, Perl DP, Haroutunian V, Powchik P, Davidson M, Davis KL. Alzheimer disease and related neurodegenerative diseases in elderly schizophrenia patients: a postmortem neu- ropathologic study of 100 cases. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55:205–11.
- DeLisi L, Sakuma M, Tew W, Kushner M, Hoff AL, Grim- son R. Schizophrenia as a chronic active brain process: a study of progressive brain structural change subsequent to the onset of psychosis. Psychiatry Res 1997;74:129–40.
- Turetsky BI, Moberg PJ, Yousem DM, Doty RL, Arnold SE, Gur RE. Reduced olfactory bulb volume in patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:828–30.
- Mathalon DH, Ford JM, Rosenbloom M, Pfefferbaum A. P300 reducation and prolongation with illness duration in schizo- phrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2000;47:413–27.
- O’Donnell BF, Faux SF, McCarley RW, Kimble MO, Salisbury DF, Nestor PG, et al. Increased rate of P300 prolongation with age in schizophrenia. Electrophysiological evidence for a neu- rodegenerative process. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:544–9.
- Pfefferbaum A, Roth WT, Ford JM. Event-related potentials in the study of psychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52:559–63.