496
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Let’s (not) talk about race: comparing mock jurors’ verdicts and deliberation content in a case of lethal police use of force with a White or Indigenous victimOpen Materials

ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Received 03 Jan 2023, Accepted 21 May 2023, Published online: 01 Jun 2023

References

  • Abshire, J., & Bornstein, B. H. (2003). Juror sensitivity to the cross-race effect. Law and Human Behavior, 27(5), 471–480. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025481905861
  • Akhavan, P. (2016). Cultural genocide: Legal label or mourning metaphor? McGill Law Journal, 62(1), 243–270. https://doi.org/10.7202/1038713ar
  • Alpert, G. P., & Dunham, R. G. (2004). Understanding police use of force: Officers, suspects,and reciprocity. Cambridge University Press.
  • Alpert, G. P., Smith, W. C. (1994). How reasonable is the reasonable man: Police and excessive force. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 85(2), 481–501.
  • Amir, R. (2018). Cultural genocide in Canada? It did happen here. Aboriginal Policy Studies, 7(1), 103–126. https://doi.org/10.5663/aps.v7i1.28804
  • Angus Reid Institute. (2020). Policing in Canada: Major study reveals four mindsets driving current opinions and future policy preferences. http://angusreid.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/2020.10.09_Policing.pdf.
  • Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D., Rector, N. A., & Kalemba, V. (1994). Racial prejudice in the Canadian legal system: Juror decisions in a simulated rape trial. Law and Human Behavior, 18(3), 339–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01499592
  • Baldus, D. C., & Woodworth, G. (2003). Race discrimination and the legitimacy of capital punishment: Reflections on the interaction of fact and perception. DePaul Law Review, 53(4), 1411–1496.
  • Baldus, D. C., Woodworth, G., & Pulaski, C. A. (1990). Equal justice and the death penalty: A legal and empirical analysis. Northeastern University Press.
  • Baumer, E. P., Messner, S. F., & Felson, R. B. (2000). The role of victim characteristics in the disposition of murder cases. Justice Quarterly, 17(2), 281–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820000096331
  • Bonilla-Silva, E. (2017). What we were, what we are, and what we should be: The racial problem of American sociology. Social Problems, 64(2), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spx006
  • Bonilla-Silva, E. (2021). What makes systemic racism systemic?. Sociological Inquiry, 91(3), 513–533. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12420
  • Bornstein, B. H., Golding, J. M., Neuschatz, J., Kimbrough, C., Reed, K., Magyarics, C., & Luecht, K. (2017). Mock juror sampling issues in jury simulation research: A meta-analysis. Law and Human Behavior, 41(1), 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000223
  • Bottoms, B. L., Davis, S. L., & Epstein, M. A. (2004). Effects of victim and defendant race on jurors' decisions in child sexual abuse cases1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02535.x
  • Braden-Maguire, J., Sigal, J., & Perrino, C. S. (2005). Battered women who kill: Variables affecting simulated jurors’ verdicts. Journal of Family Violence, 20(6), 403–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-005-7801-0
  • Bradford, B., Milani, J., & Jackson, J. (2017). Identity, legitimacy and “making sense” of police use of force. Policing: An International Journal, 40(3), 614–627. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-06-2016-0085
  • Bray, R. M., & Noble, A. M. (1978). Authoritarianism and decisions of mock juries: Evidence of jury bias and group polarization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(12), 1424–1430. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.12.1424
  • Brownridge, D. A., Taillieu, T., Afifi, T., Chan, K. L., Emery, C., Lavoie, J., & Elgar, F. (2017). Child maltreatment and intimate partner violence among indigenous and non-indigenous Canadians. Journal of Family Violence, 32(6), 607–619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9880-5
  • Buchanan, L., Quoctrung, B., & Patel, J. K. (2020). Black Lives Matter may be the largestmovement in U.S. History. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.html.
  • Bucolo, D. O., & Cohn, E. S. (2010). Playing the race card: Making race salient in defence opening and closing statements. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 15(2), 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532508X400824
  • Burch, A. D., Cai, W., Gianordoli, G., McCarthy, M., & Patel, J. K. (2020). How Black Lives Matter reached every corner of America. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/06/13/us/george-floyd-protests-cities-photos.html.
  • Carney, N. (2016). All lives matter, but so does race: Black lives matter and the evolving role of social media. Humanity & Society, 40(2), 180–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0160597616643868
  • Cheng, H. (2015). Factors influencing public satisfaction with the local police: A study in Saskatoon, Canada. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 38(4), 690–704. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-11-2014-0125
  • Chrismas, R. (2012). The people are the police: Building trust with Aboriginal communities in contemporary Canadian society. Canadian Public Administration, 55(3), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-7121.2012.00231.x
  • Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316446002000104
  • Cohn, E. S., Bucolo, D., Pride, M., & Sommers, S. R. (2009). Reducing white juror bias: The role of race salience and racial attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(8), 1953–1973. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00511.x
  • Comack, E. (2012). Racialized policing: Aboriginal people's encounters with the police. Fernwood Publishing.
  • Corenblum, B., & Stephan, W. G. (2001). White fears and native apprehensions: An integrated threat theory approach to intergroup attitudes. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 33(4), 251–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087147
  • Criminal Code, R.S.C. (1985). c. C-46.
  • Cripps, K. (2021). Media constructions of indigenous women in sexual assault cases: Reflections from Australia and Canada. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 33(3), 300–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2020.1867039
  • Davis, J. H., Kerr, N. L., Atkin, R. S., Holt, R., & Meek, D. (1975). The decision processes of 6- and 12-person mock juries assigned unanimous and two-thirds majority rules. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076849
  • Desmond, M., Papachristos, A. V., & Kirk, D. S. (2016). Police violence and citizen crime reporting in the black community. American Sociological Review, 81(5), 857–876. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416663494
  • Devine, D. J. (2012). Jury decision making: The state of the science. NYU Press.
  • Devine, D. J., Buddenbaum, J., Houp, S., Studebaker, N., & Stolle, D. P. (2009). Strength of evidence, extraevidentiary influence, and the liberation hypothesis: Data from the field. Law and Human Behavior, 33(2), 136–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-008-9144-x
  • Devine, D. J., Olafson, K. M., Jarvis, L. L., Bott, J. P., Clayton, L. D., & Wolfe, J. M. (2004). Explaining jury verdicts: Is leniency bias for real? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(10), 2069–2098. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02691.x
  • Diamond, S. S. (1997). Illuminations and shadows from jury simulations. Law and Human Behavior, 21(5), 561–571. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024831908377
  • Diamond, S. S., Peery, D., Dolan, F. J., & Dolan, E. (2009). Achieving diversity on the jury: Jury size and the peremptory challenge. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 6(3), 425–449. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-1461.2009.01149.x
  • Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (1998). On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The causes, consequences, and challenges of aversive racism. In J. Eberhardt, & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Confronting racism: The problem and the response (pp. 3–32). Sage Publications, Inc.
  • Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004). Advances in experimental social psychology. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(04)36001-6
  • Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M. (2019). Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(34), 16793–16798. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821204116
  • Elmasry, M. H., & el-Nawawy, M. (2022). The value of muslim and non-muslim life: A comparative content analysis of elite American newspaper coverage of terrorism victims. Journalism, https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920922388
  • Effron, D. A., & Conway, P. (2015). When virtue leads to villainy: Advances in research on moral self-licensing. Current Opinion in Psychology, 6, 32–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.03.017
  • Espinoza, R. K. E., & Willis-Esqueda, C. (2008). Defendant and defense attorney characteristics and their effects on juror decision making and prejudice against Mexican Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(4), 364–371. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012767
  • Estrada-Reynolds, V., Freng, S., Schweitzer, K., & Leki, E. L. (2022). Is all prejudice created equal? The role of modern and aversive racism in mock juror decisions. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2022.2073283
  • Ewanation, L., & Maeder, E. (2018). The influence of witness intoxication, witness race, and defendant race on mock juror decision making. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 60(4), 505–536. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2017-0047.r2
  • Ewanation, L., & Maeder, E. M. (2023). The influence of race on jurors’ perceptions of lethal police use of force. Law and Human Behavior, 47(1), 53–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000516
  • Ewanation, L., Maeder, E. M., & Yamamoto, S. (2022). Mock juror decision-making in a self-defence trial involving police use of force. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000270
  • Flanagan, F. (2020). Why are Indigenous people in Canada so much more likely to be shot and killed by police? CTV News. https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/why-are-indigenous-people-in-canada-so-much-more-likely-to-be-shot-and-killed-by-police-1.4989864?cache=jhiggtiw.
  • Fortnum, T. (2021). What has changed?’: Honouring Chantel Moore one year later. Global News. https://globalnews.ca/news/7918134/chantel-moore-death-one-year-later/.
  • Freeze, C. (2019). More than one-third of people shot to death over a decade by RCMP officers were Indigenous. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-more-than-one-third-of-people-shot-to-death-over-a-decade-by-rcmp/.
  • French, D. P., & Sutton, S. (2010). Reactivity of measurement in health psychology: How much of a problem is it? What can be done about it? British Journal of Health Psychology, 15(3), 453–468. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910710X492341
  • Friedman, L. (1993). Crime and punishment in American history. Basic Books.
  • Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2005). Understanding and addressing contemporary racism: From aversive racism to the common ingroup identity model. Journal of Social Issues, 61(3), 615–639. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00424.x
  • Gamblin, B. W., & Kehn, A. (2021). Race salience and attorney statements: the unique role of defense opening statements and closing arguments. Current Psychology, 40, 2621–2633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01147-8
  • Gerber, M. M., & Jackson, J. (2017). Justifying violence: Legitimacy, ideology and public support for police use of force. Psychology, Crime & Law, 23(1), 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2016.1220556
  • Glaser, J., Martin, K. D., & Kahn, K. B. (2015). Possibility of death sentence has divergent effect on verdicts for black and white defendants. Law and Human Behavior, 39(6), 539–546. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000146
  • Greene, E., Hayman, K., & Motyl, M. (2008). "Shouldn't we consider … ?": Jury discussions of forbidden topics and effects on damage awards. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 14(3), 194–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013486
  • Haegerich, T. M., Salerno, J. M., & Bottoms, B. L. (2013). Are the effects of juvenile offender stereotypes maximized or minimized by jury deliberation? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 19(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027808
  • Hall, A. V., Hall, E. V., & Perry, J. L. (2016). Black and blue: Exploring racial bias and law enforcement in the killings of unarmed black male civilians. American Psychologist, 71(3), 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040109
  • Hammock, G. S., & Richardson, D. R. (1997). Perceptions of rape: The influence of closeness of relationship, intoxication and sex of participant. Violence and Victims, 12(3), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.12.3.237
  • Hill, E., Tiefenthaler, A., Triebert, C., Jordan, D., Willis, H., & Stein, R. (2020). How George Floyd was killed in police custody. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html.
  • Horowitz, I. A., & Bordens, K. S. (2002). The effects of jury size, evidence complexity, and note taking on jury process and performance in a civil trial. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(1), 121. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.121
  • Hseih, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
  • Huff, J., Alvarez, M. J., & Miller, M. K. (2018). Mock juror perceptions of police shootings: The effects of victim race and shooting justifiability. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 14(2), 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2018.1491261
  • Hulbert, L. G., Parks, C. D., Chen, X., Nam, K., & Davis, J. H. (1999). The plaintiff bias in mock civil jury decision making: Consensus requirements, information format and amount of consensus. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 2(1), 59–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430299021005
  • Human Rights Watch. (2013). Those who take us away: Abusive policing and failures in protection of Indigenous women and girls in northern British Columbia, Canada. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/02/13/those-who-take-us-away/abusive-policing-and-failures-protection-indigenous-women.
  • Inniss, L. B. (2007). Toward a sui generis view of black rights in Canada-overcoming the difference-denial model of countering anti-black racism. Berkeley Journal of African-American Law and Policy, 9, 32–73.
  • Isenberg, D. J. (1986). Group polarization: A critical review and meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(6), 1141–1151. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1141
  • Jackson, J., Bradford, B., Hough, M., Myhill, A., Quinton, P., & Tyler, T. R. (2012). Why do people comply with the Law?: Legitimacy and the influence of legal institutions. British Journal of Criminology, 52(6), 1051–1071. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azs032
  • James, C. E. (2008). Re/presentation of race and racism in the multicultural discourse of Canada. In A. Abdi, & L. Shultz (Eds.), Educating for human rights and global citizenship (pp. 97–112). State University of New York Press.
  • Jiwani, Y. (2009). Race and the media: A retrospective and prospective gaze. Canadian Journal of Communication, 34(4), 735. https://doi.org/10.22230/cjc.2009v34n4a2286
  • Jiwani, Y., & Young, M. L. (2006). Missing and murdered women: Reproducing marginality in news discourse. Canadian Journal of Communication, 31(4), 895–918. https://doi.org/10.22230/cjc.2006v31n4a1825
  • Kalven, H., Jr., & Zeisel, H. (1966). The American jury. University of Chicago Press.
  • Kaplan, M. F., & Miller, C. E. (1987). Group decision making and normative versus informational influence: Effects of type of issue and assigned decision rule. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(2), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.2.306
  • Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Observer effects: Reactivity of direct observation. New Directions for Methodology of Social & Behavioral Science, 14, 5–19.
  • Kerr, N. L., & MacCoun, R. J. (2012). Is the leniency asymmetry really dead? Misinterpreting asymmetry effects in criminal jury deliberation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(5), 585–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430212441639
  • Kerr, N. L., Niedermeier, K. E., & Kaplan, M. F. (1999). Bias in jurors vs bias in juries: New evidence from the SDS perspective. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 80(1), 70–86. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1999.2855
  • Kleck, G. (1981). Racial discrimination in criminal sentencing: A critical evaluation of the evidence with additional evidence on the death penalty. American Sociological Review, 46(6), 783–805. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095079
  • Kong, R., & Beattie, K. (2005). Collecting data on Aboriginal People in the criminal justice system: Methods and challenges. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics.https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/85-564-x/85-564-x2005001-eng.pdf?st=hIagime6.
  • Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). An application of hierarchical kappa-type statistics in the assessment of majority agreement among multiple observers. Biometrics, 363–374. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529786
  • Langford, C., & Speight, M. (2015). #Blacklivesmatter: Epistemic positioning, challenges, and possibilities. Journal of Contemporary Rhetoric, 5, 78–89.
  • Lett, E., Asabor, E. N., Corbin, T., & Boatright, D. (2021). Racial inequity in fatal US police shootings, 2015–2020. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 75(4), 394–397. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2020-215097
  • Levenson, E. (2020). A timeline of Breonna Taylor’s case since police broke down her door and shot her. Central News Network.https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/23/us/breonna-taylor-timeline/index.html.
  • Lithopoulos, S., & Ruddell, R. (2011). Policing isolated Aboriginal communities: Perspectives of Canadian officers. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 34(3), 434–453. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639511111157500
  • Liu, M., & Wang, Y. (2015). Data collection mode effect on feeling thermometer questions: A comparison of face-to-face and Web surveys. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.057
  • London, K., & Nunez, N. (2000). The effect of jury deliberations on jurors’ propensity to disregard inadmissible evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(6), 932–939. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.6.932
  • Lynch, M., & Haney, C. (2009). Capital jury deliberation: Effects on death sentencing, comprehension, and discrimination. Law and Human Behavior, 33(6), 481–496. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-008-9168-2
  • Lynch, M., & Haney, C. (2011). Mapping the racial bias of the white male capital juror: Jurycomposition and the “empathic divide”. Law & Society Review, 45(1), 69–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2011.00428.x
  • Lynch, M., & Haney, C. (2015). Emotion, authority, and death:(Raced) negotiations in mock capital jury deliberations. Law & Social Inquiry, 40(2), 377–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/lsi.12099
  • MacCoun, R. J. (1990). The emergence of extralegal bias during jury deliberation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 17(3), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854890017003005
  • MacCoun, R. J., & Kerr, N. L. (1988). Asymmetric influence in mock jury deliberation: Jurors’ bias for leniency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(1), 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.1.21
  • Maeder, E. M., & McManus, L. A. (2022). Mosaic or melting pot? Race and juror decision making in Canada and the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(1-2), NP991–NP1012. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520917512
  • Maeder, E. M., & Yamamoto, S. (2019). Investigating race salience, defendant race, and victimrace effects on mock juror decision-making in Canada. Justice Quarterly, 36(5), 929–953. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1460390
  • Maeder, E. M., Yamamoto, S., & McManus, L. A. (2015a). Race salience in Canada: Testing multiple manipulations and target races. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 21(4), 442. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000057
  • Maeder, E. M., Yamamoto, S., & McManus, L. A. (2018). Methodology matters: Comparing sample types and data collection methods in a juror decision-making study on the influence of defendant race. Psychology, Crime & Law, 24(7), 687–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2017.1409895
  • Maeder, E. M., Yamamoto, S., & Saliba, P. (2015b). The influence of defendant race and victim physical attractiveness on juror decision-making in a sexual assault trial. Psychology, Crime & Law, 21(1), 62–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2014.915325
  • Magder, J. (2016). Bain jury deliberation among the longest in Canadian history. Montreal Gazette. https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/bain-jury-deliberation-among-the-longest-in-canadian-history.
  • Marcoux, J., & Nicholson, K. (N.D.). Deadly force: Fatal encounters with police in Canada. CBC News. https://newsinteractives.cbc.ca/longform-custom/deadly-force.
  • McHugh, M. L. (2012). Interrater reliability: The kappa statistic. Biochemia Medica, 22(3), 276–282. https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2012.031
  • Mitchell, T. L., Haw, R. M., Pfeifer, J. E., & Meissner, C. A. (2005). Racial bias in mock juror decision-making: A meta-analytic review of defendant treatment. Law and Human Behavior, 29(6), 621–637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-005-8122-9
  • Monchalin, L., Marques, O., Reasons, C., & Arora, P. (2019). Homicide and indigenous peoples in North America: A structural analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 46, 212–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.011
  • Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., Harriman, R. L., & Jewell, L. M. (2008). Old-fashioned and modern prejudice toward aboriginals in Canada. In M. E. Morrison, & T. G. Morrison (Eds.), The psychology of modern prejudice (pp. 277–305). Nova Science.
  • Myers, D. G., & Kaplan, M. F. (1976). Group-induced polarization in simulated juries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2(1), 63–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727600200114
  • Myers, D. G., & Lamm, H. (1976). The group polarization phenomenon. Psychological Bulletin, 83(4), 602–627. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.83.4.602
  • National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. (2019). Reclaiming power and place: Executive summary of the final report. https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Executive_Summary.pdf.
  • National Judicial Institute. (2014). Model jury instructions.https://www.nji-inm.ca/index.cfm/publications/model-jury-instructions/.
  • Nettelbeck, A., & Smandych, R. (2010). Policing Indigenous peoples on two colonial frontiers: Australia's mounted police and Canada's north-west mounted police. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 43(2), 356–375. https://doi.org/10.1375/acri.43.2.356
  • Nuñez, N., McCrea, S. M., & Culhane, S. E. (2011). Jury decision making research: Are researchers focusing on the mouse and not the elephant in the room? Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 29(3), 439–451. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.967
  • Oppel, R. A., Taylor, D. B., & Bogel-Burroughs, N. (2023). What to know about Breonna Taylor’s death. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/article/breonna-taylor-police.html
  • Owusu-Bempah, A., & Millar, P. (2010). Research note: Revisiting the collection of “justice statistics by race” in Canada. Canadian Journal of law and Society, 25(1), 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0829320100010231
  • Palmater, P. (2016). Shining light on the dark places: Addressing police racism and sexualized violence against indigenous women and girls in the national inquiry. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, 28(2), 253–284. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjwl.28.2.253
  • Pekár, S., & Brabec, M. (2018). Generalized estimating equations: A pragmatic and flexible approach to the marginal GLM modelling of correlated data in the behavioural sciences. Ethology, 124(2), 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.12713
  • Perreault, S. (2022). Victimization of first nations people, metis, and inuit in Canada. Juristat: Canadian Centre for Justice and Community Safety Statistics, 42(1), https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2022001/article/00012-eng.htm.
  • Peter-Hagene, L. (2019). Jurors’ cognitive depletion and performance during jury deliberation as a function of jury diversity and defendant race. Law and Human Behavior, 43(3), 232–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000332
  • Pica, E., Sheahan, C. L., Pozzulo, J., & Bennell, C. (2020). Guns, gloves, and tasers: Perceptions of police officers and their use of weapon as a function of race and gender. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 35(3), 348–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-020-09365-3
  • Pierce, G. L., Radelet, M. L., & Sharp, S. (2017). Race and death sentencing for Oklahoma homicides committed between 1990 and 2012. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 107(4), 733–756.
  • Reny, T. T., & Newman, B. J. (2021). The opinion-mobilizing effect of social protest against police violence: Evidence from the 2020 George Floyd protests. American Political Science Review, 1499–1507. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000460
  • Reynolds, J. J., Estrada-Reynolds, V., & Nunez, N. (2018). Development and validation of the attitudes towards police legitimacy scale. Law and Human Behavior, 42(2), 119–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000281
  • Roper, R. T. (1980). Jury size and verdict consistency: "A line Has to be drawn somewhere"? Law & Society Review, 14(4), 977–995. https://doi.org/10.2307/3053217
  • Royal Canadian Mounted Police. (2014). Missing and murdered Aboriginal women: A national operational overview. https://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/en/missing-and-murdered-aboriginal-women-national-operational-overview
  • Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). The Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/aboriginal-heritage/royal-commission-aboriginal-peoples/Pages/final-report.aspx.
  • Ruva, C. L., & Guenther, C. C. (2015). From the shadows into the light: How pretrial publicity and deliberation affect mock jurors’ decisions, impressions, and memory. Law and Human Behavior, 39(3), 294. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000117
  • Ruva, C. L., & Guenther, C. C. (2017). Keep your bias to yourself: How deliberating with differently biased others affects mock-jurors’ guilt decisions, perceptions of the defendant, memories, and evidence interpretation. Law and Human Behavior, 41(5), 478–493. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000256
  • Saks, M. J., & Marti, M. W. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of jury size. Law and Human Behavior, 21(5), 451–467. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024819605652
  • Scott, E. (2018). Only one-third of African Americans say they have confidence in the police. Killings like Alton Sterling’s are part of the reason. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2018/03/27/only-one-third-of-african-americans-say-they-have-confidence-in-the-police-killings-like-alton-sterlings-are-part-of-the-reason/.
  • Shaw, E. V., Lynch, M., Laguna, S., & Frenda, S. J. (2021). Race, witness credibility, and jury deliberation in a simulated drug trafficking trial. Law and Human Behavior, 45(3), 215–228. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000449
  • Sieber, J., & Ziegler, R. (2019). Group polarization revisited: A processing effort account. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(10), 1482–1498. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219833389
  • Singh, I. (2020). 2020 already a particularly deadly year for people killed in police encounters,CBC research shows. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.https://newsinteractives.cbc.ca/fatalpoliceencounters/.
  • Sommers, S. R. (2006). On racial diversity and group decision making: Identifying multiple effects of racial composition on jury deliberations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4), 597–612. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.597
  • Sommers, S. R., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2000). Race in the courtroom: Perceptions of guilt and dispositional attributions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(11), 1367–1379. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200263005
  • Sommers, S. R., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2001). White juror bias: An investigation of prejudice against black defendants in the American courtroom. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7(1), 201–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.7.1.201
  • Steblay, N., Hosch, H. M., Culhane, S. E., & McWethy, A. (2006). The impact on juror verdicts of judicial instruction to disregard inadmissible evidence: A meta-analysis. Law and Human Behavior, 30(4), 469–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9039-7
  • Stevenson, M. C., Lytle, B. L., Baumholser, B. J., & McCracken, E. W. (2017). Racially diverse juries promote self-monitoring efforts during jury deliberation. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 3(2), 187–201. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000113
  • Sundby, S. E. (2002). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88, 343–381.
  • Sunstein, C. R. (2002). The law of group polarization. Journal of Political Philosophy, 10(2), 175–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9760.00148
  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–48). Brooks/Cole.
  • Takada, M., & Murata, K. (2014). Accentuation of bias in jury decision-making. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 17(1), 110–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430213490210
  • Tanford, S., & Penrod, S. (1986). Jury deliberations: Discussion content and influence processes in jury decision Making1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16(4), 322–347. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1986.tb01144.x
  • Tankebe, J., Reisig, M. D., & Wang, X. (2016). A multidimensional model of police legitimacy: A cross-cultural assessment. Law and Human Behavior, 40(1), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000153
  • Truth and Reconciliation commission of Canada. (2015). Canada’s Residential Schools: The History, Part 1 Origins to 1939. https://ehprnh2mwo3.exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Volume_1_History_Part_1_English_Web.pdf.
  • Tyler, T. R. (1990). Why people obey the law. Yale University Press.
  • Ugwuegbu, D. C. E. (1979). Racial and evidential factors in juror attribution of legal responsibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15(2), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(79)90025-8
  • Ward, R. (2020). SIU clears police officers in the death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet. CanadianBroadcasting Corporation. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/fifth-estate-regis-korchinski-paquet-siu-1.5699999.
  • Weitzer, R. (2002). Incidents of police misconduct and public opinion. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(5), 397–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00150-2
  • Weitzer, R. (2015). American policing under fire: Misconduct and reform. Society, 52(5), 475–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115-015-9931-1
  • White, K., Stuart, F., & Morrissey, S. L. (2021). Whose lives matter? Race, space, and the devaluation of homicide victims in minority communities. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 7(3), 333–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649220948184
  • White, M. D., Mulvey, P., & Dario, L. M. (2016). Arrestees’ perceptions of the police: Exploring procedural justice, legitimacy, and willingness to cooperate with police across offender types. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43(3), 343–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854815602501
  • Williams, M. R., Demuth, S., & Holcomb, J. E. (2007). Understanding the influence of victim gender in death penalty cases: The importance of victim race, sex-related victimization, and jury decision making. Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal, 45(4), 865–891. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00095.x
  • Williams, M. R., & Holcomb, J. E. (2004). The interactive effects of victim race and gender on death sentence disparity findings. Homicide Studies, 8(4), 350–376. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767903262445
  • Woolford, A., & Benvenuto, J. (2015). Canada and colonial genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 17(4), 373–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2015.1096580
  • Wortley, S. (1999). A northern taboo: Research on race, crime, and criminal justice in Canada. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 41(2), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjcrim.41.2.261
  • Wuensch, K. L., Campbell, M. W., Kesler, F. C., & Moore, C. H. (2002). Racial bias in decisions made by mock jurors evaluating a case of sexual harassment. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142(5), 587–600. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540209603920
  • Yamamoto, S., & Maeder, E. M. (2021). What's in the box? Punishment and insanity in the Canadian jury deliberation room. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 2442. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689128

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.