156
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

The intersection of defendant gender and racialisation in a case of child neglect

ORCID Icon &
Received 19 Dec 2022, Accepted 28 May 2023, Published online: 15 Jun 2023

References

  • Aberson, C. (2021). pwr2ppl: Power analyses for common designs (Power to the People) (Version 0.2.0) [Computer software]. R. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=pwr2ppl
  • Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission. (1999). Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba (Vol. 1). http://www.ajic.mb.ca/volumel/toc.html
  • Advisory Group on Conducting Research on the Internet. (2002). Psychological research online: Opportunities and challenges. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/science/leadership/bsa/internet/internet-report
  • Alberta Civil Liberties Research Centre. (n.d.). Racialisation. https://www.aclrc.com/racialization
  • Bar-Tal, D. (1997). Formation and change of ethnic and national stereotypes: An integrative model. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21(4), 491–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(97)00022-9
  • Berman, G. L., & Cutler, B. L. (1996). Effects of inconsistencies in eyewitness testimony on mock-juror decision making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(2), 170–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.2.170
  • Blackstock, C. (2003). First Nations child and family services: Restoring peace and harmony in First Nations communities. In K. Kufeldt, & B. McKenzie (Eds.), Child welfare: Connecting research, policy, and practice (pp. 331–342). Wilfred Laurier University Press.
  • Bornstein, B. H. (1999). The ecological validity of jury simulations: Is the jury still out? Law and Human Behavior, 23(1), 75–91, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022326807441
  • Bornstein, B. H., Golding, J. M., Neuschatz, J., Kimbrough, C., Reed, K., Magyarics, C., & Luecht, K. (2017). Mock juror sampling issues in jury simulation research: A meta-analysis.. Law and Human Behavior, 41(1), 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000223
  • Bornstein, B. H., & McCabe, S. G. (2005). Jurors of the absurd? The role of consequentiality in jury research. Florida State University Law Review, 32. https://ir.law.fsu.edu/lr/vol32/iss2/7
  • Boyce, J. (2016). Victimization of Aboriginal people in Canada, 2014. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2016001/article/14631-eng.htm
  • Burgess-Proctor, A. (2006). Intersections of race, class, gender, and crime: Future directions for feminist criminology. Feminist Criminology, 1(1), 27–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085105282899
  • Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, s 11, Part 1 of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11.
  • Carbado, D. W., Crenshaw, K. W., Mays, V. M., & Tomlinson, B. (2013). Intersectionality: Mapping the movements of a theory. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 10(2), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X13000349
  • Carling, A. (2017). A way to reduce Indigenous overrepresentation: Prevent false guilty plea wrongful convictions. Criminal Law Quarterly, 64, 415–461.
  • Clow, K. A., Lant, J. M., & Cutler, B. L. (2013). Perceptions of defendant culpability in pretrial publicity: The effects of defendant ethnicity and participant gender. Race and Social Problems, 5(4), 250–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-013-9102-1
  • Cowdery, R. S., & Knudson-Martin, C. (2005). The construction of motherhood: Tasks, relational connection, and gender equality*. Family Relations, 54(3), 335–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2005.00321.x
  • Crawford, B., & Bradley, M. S. (2016). Parent gender and child removal in physical abuse and neglect cases. Children and Youth Services Review, 65, 224–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.04.013
  • Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(8), 139–167.
  • Crenshaw, K. W. (2012). From private violence to mass incarceration: Thinking intersectionally about women, race, and social control. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1418–1473.
  • Crew, B. K. (1991). Sex differences in criminal sentencing: Chivalry or patriarchy? Justice Quarterly, 8(1), 59–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829100090911
  • Criminal Code of Canada, RSC. (1985). c C-46.
  • Crowe, A., & Schiffer, J. (2021). Mashkiwenmi-daa noojimowin: Let’s have strong minds for the healing (First Nations Ontario incidence study of report child abuse and neglect – 2018). Canadian Child Welfare Research Portal. https://cwrp.ca/publications/mashkiwenmi-daa-noojimowin-lets-have-strong-minds-healing-first-nations-ontario
  • Curran, D. A. (1983). Judicial discretion and defendant’s sex. Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal, 21(1), 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00250.x
  • Datta, R. (2018). Decolonizing both researcher and research and its effectiveness in Indigenous research. Research Ethics, 14(2), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117733296
  • Department of Justice. (2021). Victim participation in the plea negotiation process in Canada. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cj-jp/victim/rr02_5/p0.html
  • Devine, D. J., & Caughlin, D. E. (2014). Do they matter? A meta-analytic investigation of individual characteristics and guilt judgments. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20(2), 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000006
  • Doerner, J. K., & Demuth, S. (2014). Gender and sentencing in the federal courts: Are women treated more leniently? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25(2), 242–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403412466877
  • Eagly, A. H., Nater, C., Miller, D. I., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S. (2020). Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. American Psychologist, 75(3), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000494
  • Environics Institute, Canadians for a New Partnership, The Circle on Philanthropy and Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, The Inspirit Foundation, Institute on Governance, National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, Reconciliation Canada, & Tides Canada. (2016). Canadian public opinion on Aboriginal Peoples: Final Report. Environics Institute for Survey Research. https://www.environicsinstitute.org/projects/project-details/public-opinion-about-aboriginal-issues-in-canada-2016
  • Erhart, R. S., & Hall, D. L. (2019). A descriptive and comparative analysis of the content of stereotypes about Native Americans. Race and Social Problems, 11(3), 225–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-019-09264-1
  • Ewanation, L., & Maeder, E. (2018). The influence of witness intoxication, witness race, and defendant race on mock juror decision making. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 60(4), 505–536. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2017-0047.r2
  • Fallon, B., Lefebvre, R., Trocmé, N., Richard, K., Hélie, S., Montgomery, H. M., Bennett, M., Joh-Carnelia, N., Saint-Girons, M., Filippelli, J., MacLaurin, B., Black, T., Esposito, T., King, B., Collin-Vézina, D., Dallaire, R., Gray, R., Levi, J., Orr, M., … Soop, S. (2021). Denouncing the continued overrepresentation of First Nations children in Canadian child welfare: Findings from the First Nations/Canadian incidence study of report child abuse and neglect – 2019. Canadian Child Welfare Research Portal. https://cwrp.ca/publications/denouncing-continued-overrepresentation-first-nations-children-canadian-child-welfare
  • Fast, E., & Collin-Vézina, D. (2019). Historical trauma, race-based trauma, and resilience of Indigenous peoples: A literature review. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 14. https://doi.org/10.7202/1069069ar
  • Field, A., Miles, J., & Field, Z. (2012). Discovering statistics using R. SAGE.
  • Franklin, C. A., & Fearn, N. E. (2008). Gender, race, and formal court decision-making outcomes: Chivalry/paternalism, conflict theory or gender conflict? Journal of Criminal Justice, 36(3), 279–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.04.009
  • Freiburger, T. L. (2011). The impact of gender, offense type, and familial role on the decision to incarcerate. Social Justice Research, 24(2), 143–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-011-0133-8
  • Freiburger, T. L., & Hilinski, C. M. (2013). An examination of the interactions of race and gender on sentencing decisions using a trichotomous dependent variable. Crime & Delinquency, 59(1), 59–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128708330178
  • Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61–89). Academic Press.
  • Grabe, M. E., Trager, K. D., Lear, M., & Rauch, J. (2006). Gender in crime news: A case study test of the chivalry hypothesis. Mass Communication and Society, 9(2), 137–163. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0902_2
  • Gruhl, J., & Welch, S. (1984). Women as criminal defendants: A test for paternalism. Western Political Quarterly, 37(3), 456–467. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591298403700308
  • Haddock, G., Zanna, M. P., & Esses, V. M. (1994). The (limited) role of trait-laden stereotypes in predicting attitudes toward Native peoples. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33(1), 83–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01012.x
  • Haines, E. L., Deaux, K., & Lofaro, N. (2016). The times they Are a-changing … or Are they Not? A comparison of gender stereotypes, 1983–2014. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316634081
  • Hentshel, T., Heilman, M. E., & Peus, C. V. (2019). The multiple dimensions of gender stereotypes: A current look at men’s and women’s characterizations of others and themselves. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00011
  • Hochman, A. (2019). Racialization: A defense of the concept. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42(8), 1245–1262. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2018.1527937
  • Hyatt, A. (2019). Healing through culture for incarcerated Aboriginal people. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 8(2), 40–53. https://doi.org/10.7202/1071731ar
  • Innovative Research Group. (2021). Indigenous issues: This time looks different! https://innovativeresearch.ca/indigenous-issues-this-time-looks-different/
  • Johnston, J. B., Kennedy, T. D., & Shuman, I. G. (1987). Gender differences in the sentencing of felony offenders. Federal Probation, 51(1), 49–55.
  • Kalven, H., & Zeisel, H. (1966). The American jury. Little, Brown & Company.
  • Koons-Witt, B. A., Sevigny, E. L., Burrow, J. D., & Hester, R. (2014). Gender and sentencing outcomes in South Carolina: Examining the interactions with race, age, and offense type. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25(3), 299–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403412468884
  • Kruttschnitt, C., & Green, D. E. (1984). The sex-sanctioning issue: Is it history? American Sociological Review, 49(4), 541–551. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095467
  • Lawrence, B. (2003). Gender, race, and the regulation of Native identity in Canada and the United States: An overview. Hypatia, 18(2), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.2003.tb00799.x
  • Lieberman, J. D., Krauss, D. A., Heen, M., & Sakiyama, M. (2016). The good, the bad, and the ugly: Professional perceptions of jury decision-making research practices. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 34(4), 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2246
  • Lindsay, B., & Watson, B. (2022). 93 potential burial sites found near former B.C. residential school. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/williams-lake-st-josephs-residential-school-1.6326467
  • Lindstrom, G., & Choate, P. (2016). Nistawatsiman: Rethinking assessment of Aboriginal parents for child welfare following the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 11(2), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.7202/1082337ar
  • Liu, T., & Wong, Y. J. (2018). The intersection of race and gender: Asian American men’s experience of discrimination. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19(1), 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000084
  • Lynch, M., & Haney, C. (2011). Mapping the racial bias of the White male capital juror: Jury composition and the “empathetic divide.”. Law & Society Review, 45(1), 69–102. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2011.00428.x
  • Maeder, E., & Yamamoto, S. (2019). Social identity in the Canadian courtroom: Effects of juror and defendant race. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 61(4), 24–44. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2018-0057
  • Maeder, E. M., & Burdett, J. (2013). The combined effect of defendant race and alleged gang affiliation on mock juror decision-making. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 20(2), 188–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2011.633330
  • Maeder, E. M., & Dempsey, J. L. (2013). A likely story? The influence of type of alibi and defendant gender on juror decision-making. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 20(4), 543–552. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2012.727066
  • Maeder, E. M., & Hunt, J. S. (2011). Talking about a Black man: The influence of defendant and character witness race on jurors’ use of character evidence. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 29(4), 608–620. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.996
  • Maeder, E. M., & McManus, L. A. (2020). Mosaic or melting pot? Race and juror decision making in Canada and the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(1–2), NP991–NP1012. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520917512
  • Maeder, E. M., Yamamoto, S., & McManus, L. A. (2015). Race salience in Canada: Testing multiple manipulations and target races. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 21(4), 442–451. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000057
  • Maeder, E. M., Yamamoto, S., McManus, L. A., & Capaldi, C. A. (2016). Race−crime congruency in the Canadian context.. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 48(2), 162–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000045
  • Maeder, E. M., Yamamoto, S., & Saliba, P. (2015). The influence of defendant race and victim physical attractiveness on juror decision-making in a sexual assault trial. Psychology, Crime & Law, 21(5), 62–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2014.915325
  • Malakieh, J. (2020). Adult and youth correctional statistics in Canada, 2018/2019. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2020001/article/00016-eng.htm
  • Mandamin, L. S. (2021). Naadamaagewin: Indigenous restorative justice. [Master’s thesis, University of Alberta]. Education and Research Archive. https://doi.org/10.7939/r3-ygtv-kc10
  • Mazzella, R., & Feingold, A. (1994). The effects of physical attractiveness, race, socioeconomic status, and gender of defendants and victims on judgments of mock jurors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(15), 1315–1338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb01552.x
  • McManus, L., Maeder, E., & Yamamoto, S. (2018). The role of defendant race and racially charged media in Canadian mock juror decision making. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 60(2), 266–295. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2017.0035.r1
  • Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., Harriman, R. L., & Jewell, L. S. (2008). Old-fashioned and modern prejudice toward aboriginals in Canada. In M. A. Morrison, & T. G. Morrison (Eds.), The psychology of modern prejudice (pp. 277–306). Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
  • Mossière, A., & Maeder, E. M. (2016). Juror decision making in not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder trials: Effects of defendant gender and mental illness type. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 49, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2016.05.008
  • Mossière, A., Maeder, E. M., & Pica, E. (2018). Racial composition of couples in battered spouse syndrome cases: A look at juror perceptions and decisions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(18), 2867–2890. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516632355
  • Mustard, D. B. (2011). Racial, ethnic, and gender disparities in sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal courts. The Journal of Law and Economics, 44(1), 285–314. https://doi.org/10.1086/320276
  • Nagel, I. H., & Hagan, J. (1983). Gender and crime: Offense patterns and criminal court sanctions. Crime and Justice, 4, 91–144. https://doi.org/10.1086/449087
  • Nagel, I. H., & Johnson, B. L. (1994). The role of gender in a structured sentencing system: Equal treatment, policy choices, and the sentencing of female offenders under the United States sentencing guidelines. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 85(1), 181–221. https://doi.org/10.2307/1144116
  • National Judicial Institute. (2014). Model jury instructions. Canadian Judicial Council. https://www.nji-inm.ca/index.cfm/publications/model-jury-instructions/?langSwitch=en
  • Neuschatz, J. S., Lawson, D. S., Swanner, J. K., Meissner, C. A., & Neuschatz, J. S. (2008). The effects of accomplice witnesses and jailhouse informants on jury decision making. Law and Human Behavior, 32(2), 137–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-007-9100-1
  • Ontario Human Rights Commission. (2003). Paying the price: The human cost of racial profiling. https://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/paying-price-human-cost-racial-profiling
  • Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727–733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733
  • Perrault, S. (2009). The incarceration of Aboriginal people in adult correctional services. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2009003/article/10903-eng.htm
  • Peter-Hagene, L. (2019). Jurors’ cognitive depletion and performance during jury deliberation as a function of jury diversity and defendant race. Law and Human Behavior, 43(3), 232–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000332
  • Pettalia, J., Pozzulo, J. D., & Reed, J. (2017). The influence of sex on mock jurors’ verdicts across type of child abuse cases. Child Abuse & Neglect, 69, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.03.025
  • Pezdek, K., Avila-Mora, E., & Sperry, K. (2010). Does trial presentation medium matter in jury simulation research? Evaluating the effectiveness of eyewitness expert testimony. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1578
  • Pfeifer, J. E., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (2003). Mock juror ratings of guilt in Canada: Modern racism and ethnic heritage. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 31(3), 301–312. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2003.31.3.301
  • Pica, E., Pettalia, J., & Pozzulo, J. (2017). The influence of a defendant’s chronological age, developmental age, and race on mock juror decision making. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 32(1), 66–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-016-9201-1
  • Pozzulo, J. D., Dempsey, J., Maeder, E., & Allen, L. (2010). The effects of victim gender, defendant gender, and defendant age on juror decision making. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(1), 47–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809344173
  • Pritchard, M. E., & Keenan, J. M. (1999). Memory monitoring in mock jurors. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5(2), 152–168. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.5.2.152
  • Quas, J. A., Bottoms, B. L., Haegerich, T. M., & Nysse-Carris, K. L. (2002). Effects of victim, defendant, and juror gender on decisions in child sexual assault cases. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(10), 1993–2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb02061.x
  • Ridgeway, C. L. (2011). Framed by gender: How gender inequality persists in the modern world. Oxford University Press.
  • Roberts, A. (2018). Implicit jury bias: Are informational interventions effective? In C. Najdowski & M. Stevenson (Eds.), Criminal juries in the 21st century: Psychological science and the law (pp. 85–108). Oxford University Press.
  • Roberts, A., & Boyce, M. (2021, March 20). The effect of gender and gendered behaviour on legal judgments [Conference presentation]. AP-LS 2021 Virtual Poster Session. https://osf.io/npvj8
  • Roberts, D. E. (2012). Prison, foster care, and the systemic punishment of Black mothers. UCLA Law Review, 59. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2184329
  • Rodriguez, S. F., Curry, T. R., & Lee, G. (2006). Gender differences in criminal sentencing: Do effects vary across violent, property, and drug offenses?* Social Science Quarterly, 87(2), 318–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2006.00383.x
  • Rousell, D. (2018). Too see and be seen: Indigenous theories and knowledge of racism and its mediation – the experience of nehiyaw/cree youth and their community [Doctoral dissertation]. Carleton University. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
  • Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (Vol. 1). http://hdl.handle.net/1974/6874
  • R v. A.S. (2020). SKQB 235. https://canlii.ca/t/jb1dg
  • R v. Clark. (2019). ABQB 414. https://canlii.ca/t/j0sww
  • R v. Lovett. (2017). ABQB 46. https://canlii.ca/t/gx5nd
  • R v. Naglik. (1993). 3 SCR 122. https://canlii.ca/t/1fs0h
  • Sinclair, R. (2007). Identity lost and found: Lessons from the sixties scoop. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(1), 65–82. https://doi.org/10.7202/1069527ar
  • Sinclair, R. (2019). Aboriginal social work education in Canada: Decolonising pedagogy for the seventh generation. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 14, 9–21. https://doi.org/10.7202/1071284ar
  • Sivasubramaniam, D., McGuinness, M., Coulter, D., Klettke, B., Nolan, M., & Schuller, R. (2020). Jury decision-making: The impact of engagement and perceived threat on verdict decisions. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 27(3), 346–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2020.1793819
  • Sommers, S. R. (2006). On racial diversity and group decision making: Identifying multiple effects of racial composition on jury deliberations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 597–612. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.597
  • Starr, S. B. (2015). Estimating gender disparities in federal criminal cases. American Law and Economics Review, 17(1), 127–159. https://doi.org/10.1093/aler/ahu010
  • Statistics Canada. (2018). Aboriginal population profile, 2016 census. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/abpopprof/index.cfm?Lang=E
  • Statistics Canada. (2022). Indigenous population continues to grow and is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, although the pace of growth has slowed. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220921/dq220921a-eng.htm
  • Steffensmeier, D., Kramer, J., & Streifel, C. (1993). Gender and imprisonment decisions. Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal, 31(3), 411–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1993.tb01136.x
  • Sterritt, A., & Dickson, C. (2021). ‘This is heavy truth’: Tk’emlúps te Secwépemc chief says more to be done to identify unmarked graves. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/kamloops-residential-school-findings-1.6084185
  • Thambinathan, V., & Kinsella, E. A. (2021). Decolonizing methodologies in qualitative research: Creating spaces for transformative praxis. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211014766
  • The jamovi project. (2021). jamovi. (Version 2.2) [Computer software]. https://www.jamovi.org
  • Theriault, E. Y. (2017). Long Lake Post | Ojibway (1911). A Canadian Family. https://acanadianfamily.wordpress.com/2017/08/04/long-lake-post-census-surnames-anishinaabe-ojibway/
  • Tourangeau, R., & Yan, T. (2007). Sensitive questions in surveys. Psychological Bulletin, 133(5), 859–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.5.859
  • Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada.
  • Voce, A., Cecco, L., & Michael, C. (2021). ‘Cultural genocide’: The shameful history of Canada’s residential schools – mapped. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2021/sep/06/canada-residential-schools-indigenous-children-cultural-genocide-map
  • White, P. (2022). ‘Shocking and shameful’: Indigenous women make up half the female population in Canada’s federal prisons. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-half-of-all-women-inmates-are-indigenous/
  • Wilson, K. J. (2018). Confronting Canada’s Indigenous female disposability. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 38, 153–163.
  • Winters, G. M. (2018). The impact of defendant gender and attractiveness on juror decision-making in a sexual offence case [Doctoral dissertation]. City University of New York. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
  • Zinger, I. (2020). Office of the correctional investigator annual report 2019–2020. Government of Canada. https://www.oci-bec.gc.ca/cnt/rpt/annrpt/annrpt20192020-eng.aspx

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.