Asserting an Eritrean identity in the face of imposed racialisation: national identity claims of some Eritrean refugees in South Africa

References

• Abdi, C. 2011. “Moving beyond Xenophobia: Structural Violence, Conflict and Encounters with the ‘Other’ Africans.” Development Southern Africa 28 (5): 691–704. doi:10.1080/0376835X.2011.623916.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdi, C. 2015. Elusive Jannah: The Somali Diaspora and a Borderless Muslim Identity. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Alemu, A. 2012. “A Study of Socio-Economic Cultural Identity and Adjustment of Ethiopian Immigration in Atlanta.” Unpublished master’s thesis. Georgia State University. Accessed 10 February 2017 http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1849&context=dissertations
   Google Scholar
• Alexander, N. 2006. “Racial Identity, Citizenship and Nation Building in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” A Lecture Delivered at the East London campus, University of Fort Hare, March 25. Accessed 22 December 2017 http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/2006-racial-identity-citizenship-and-nation-building.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Araia, T. 2005. “Routes, motivations, and duration: explaining Eritrean forced migrants’ journey to Johannesburg.” Unpublished master’s dissertation. University of the Witwatersrand. Accessed 12 March 2015 http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/11732/MA%20Research%20Report%20of%20Tesfalem%20Araia.pdf?sequence=1
   Google Scholar
• Arnone, A. 2011. “Talking about Identity: Milanese-Eritreans Describe Themselves.” Journal of Modern Italian Studies 16 (4): 516–527. doi:10.1080/1354571X.2011.593765.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Awokoya, J. 2012. “Identity Constructions and Negotiations among 1.5- And Second-Generation Nigerians: The Impact of Family, School, and Peer Contexts.” Harvard Educational Review 82 (2): 255–281. doi:10.17763/haer.82.2.9v77p329367116vj.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bereketeab, R. 2002. “Supra-ethnic Nationalism: The Case of Eritrea.” African Sociological Review / Revue Africaine de Sociologie 6 (2): 137–152. doi:10.4314/asr.v6i2.23218.
   Google Scholar
• Berry, J. 1997. “Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 46 (1): 5–34. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bessa, L. 2013. “Mulheres Brazucas: Identity Negotiation in the Immigration Experience of Brazilian Women.” Unpublished doctoral thesis. University of Texas at Austin. Accessed 16 May 2017. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/21367/BESSA-DISSERTATION-2013.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
   Google Scholar
• Chacko, E. 2003. “Identity and Assimilation among Young Ethiopian Immigrants in Metropolitan Washington.” Geographical Review 93 (4): 491–506. doi:10.1111/j.1931-0846.2003.tb00044.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christopher, J. 2002. “To Define the Indefinable’: Population Classification and the Census in South Africa.” Royal Geographical Society 34 (4): 401–408. doi:10.1111/1475-4762.00097.
   Google Scholar
• Cindi, W., and G. Finchilescu. 2003. “Living with Prejudice - Xenophobia and Race.” Agenda 55: 36–44. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4066297
   Google Scholar
• Crush, J., G. Tawodzera, C. McCordic, and S. Ramachandran. 2017. Refugee entrepreneurial economies in urban South Africa (rep. i-40). Waterloo, ON: Southern African Migration Programme. SAMP Migration Policy Series No. 76.
   Google Scholar
• Danzer, A., and F. Yaman. 2012. Do ethnic enclaves impede immigrants’ integration? evidence from a uasi experimental social-interaction approach. German socio-economic panel study at DIW Berlin. SOEP papers on multidisciplinary panel data research. Paper no. 519.
   Google Scholar
• Dirar, U. 2007. “Colonialism and the Construction of National Identities: The Case of Eritrea.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 1 (2): 257–263. doi:10.1080/17531050701452556.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erasmus, Z. 2001. “Introduction: Re-Imagining Coloured Identities in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” In Coloured by History, Shaped by Place: New Perspectives on Coloured Identities in Cape Town, edited by Z. Erasmus, 13–28. Cape Town: Kwela Books.
   Google Scholar
• Frederickson, G. 1981. White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Getahun, S. 2007. The History of Ethiopian Immigrants and Refugees in America, 1900–2000: Patterns of Migration, Survival, and Adjustment. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Ghebremedhin, M. 1997. “The adaptation of Eritrean migrants in the Loa Angeles city area.” Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Biola University.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, D. T. 2002. The Racial State. Malden: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Gordon, S. 2010. “Migrants in a State of Exception: Xenophobia and the Role of the Post- Apartheid State Mapadimeng, M.S., and Khan, S.” In Contemporary Social Issues in Africa: Cases in Gaborone, Kampala and Durban, 45–64. Pretoria: African Institute of South Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Greyling, T. 2016. “The Expected Well-Being of Urban Refugees and Asylum-Seekers in Johannesburg.” South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences 19 (2): 232–248. doi:10.17159/2222-3436/2016/v19n2a5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Habecker, S. 2012. “Not Black, but Habasha: Ethiopian and Eritrean Immigrants in American Society.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 35 (7): 1200–1219. doi:10.1080/01419870.2011.598232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammett, D. 2010. “Ongoing Contestations: The Use of Racial Signifiers in Post-apartheid South Africa.” Social Identities 16 (2): 247–260. doi:10.1080/13504631003691090.
   Google Scholar
• Handmaker, J., and J. Parsley. 2001. “Migration, Refugees, and Racism in South Africa.” Refugee Reception and Integration 20 (1): 40–51. doi:10.25071/1920-7336.21246.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, B. 2002. “Xenophobia: A New Pathology for A New South Africa?” In Psychopathology and Social Prejudice, edited by D. Hook, and E. Gillian. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press 169–184.
   Google Scholar
• Hepner, T. 2013. “Emergent Eritrean Human Rights Movements: Politics, Law and Culture in Transnational Perspective.” In Worlds of Human Rights: Ambiguities of Rights Claiming in Africa, edited by W. Derman, A. Hellum, and K. B. Sandvik, 277–302. Leiden: Brill.
   Google Scholar
• Hino, H., M. Leibbrandt, R. Machema, M. Shifa, and C. Soudien. 2018. Identity, inequality and social contestation in the Post-Apartheid South Africa. Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit. Working paper series, number 233. University of Cape Town.
   Google Scholar
• Hoyle, P. 1999. “Eritrean National Identity: A Case Study.” North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation 24 (2): 381–416. https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/ncilj/vol24/iss2/4/
   Google Scholar
• Itzigsohn, J., S. Giorguli, and O. Vazquez. 2005. “Immigrant Incorporation and Racial Identity: Racial Self-identification among Dominican Immigrants.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 28 (1): 50–78. doi:10.1080/0141984042000280012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyob, R. 1995. The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1941–1993.
   Google Scholar
• Kibreab, G. 2000. “Resistance, Displacement and Identity: The Case of Eritrean Refugees in Sudan.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 34 (2): 249–296. doi:10.2307/486416.
   Google Scholar
• Kusow, A. 2006. “Migration and Racial Formations among Somali Immigrants in North America.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 32 (3): 533–551. doi:10.1080/13691830600555079.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landau, L. 2006. “Protection and Dignity in Johannesburg: Shortcomings of South Africa’s Urban Refugee Policy.” Journal of Refugee Studies 19 (3): 308–327. doi:10.1093/jrs/fel012.
   Google Scholar
• Landau, L. 2010. “Loving the Alien? Citizenship, Law and the Future in South Africa’s Demonic Society.” African Affairs 109 (435): 213–230. doi:10.1093/afraf/adq002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langa, M., and P. Kiguwa. 2016. “Race-ing Xenophobic Violence: Engaging Social Representations of the Black African Body in Post-apartheid South Africa.” Agenda 30 (2): 75–85. doi:10.1080/10130950.2016.1222086.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maré, G. 2014. Declassified. Johannesburg: Jacana Media.
   Google Scholar
• Massa, A. 2017. “Rethinking Kinship, Mobility and Citizenship across the Ethiopian-Eritrean Boundaries.” In Boundaries Within: Nation, Kinship and Identity among Migrants and Minorities, edited by F. Decimo and A. Gribaldo, 117–138. Rotterdam: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Matsinhe, D. 2011. “Africa’s Fear of Itself: The Ideology of Makwerekwere in South Africa.” Third World Quarterly 32 (2): 295–313. doi:10.1080/01436597.2011.560470.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mbiyozo, A.-N. 2018. Gender and migration in South Africa Talking to women migrants. Institute for Security Studies. Southern Africa Report 16. file:///C:/Users/ADMIN/Downloads/Gender_and_Migration.pdf
   Google Scholar
• McDonnell, J., and C. de Lourenco. 2009. “‘You’re Brazilian, Right? What Kind of Brazilian are You?’ the Racialization of Brazilian Immigrant Women.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 32 (2): 239–256. doi:10.1080/01419870802361328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mngxitama, A. 2008. “We are Not All like That: Race,Class and Nation after Apartheid.” In Go Home or Die Here: Violence, Xenophobia and the Reinvention of Difference in South Africa, edited by H. Shireen, K. Tawana, and W. Eric. Johannesburg: Wits University Press 189–205.
   Google Scholar
• Naty, A. 2001. “Memories of the Kunama of Eritrea Towards Italian Colonialism.” Africa: Rivista Trimestrale di Studi e Documentazione dell’Istituto Italiano perl’Africa e l’Oriente 56 (4): 573–589. www.jstor.org/stable/40761568
   Google Scholar
• Neocosmos, M. 2006. From ‘Foreign Natives’ to ‘Native Foreigners’: Explaining Xenophobia in Post-Apartheid South Africa. Dakar: CODESRIA.
   Google Scholar
• Omi, M., and H. Winant. 1994. Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Peter, K. 2001. “Theorizing Transnational Immigration: A Critical Review of Current Efforts.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 24 (4): 549–577. doi:10.1080/01419870120049789.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portes, A., and R. G. Rumbaut. 2001. Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Posel, D. 2001a. “Race as Common Sense: Racial Classification in Twentieth-century South Africa.” African Studies Review 44 (2): 87–113. doi:10.2307/525576.
   Google Scholar
• Posel, D. 2001b. “What is in a Name: Racial Categorisations under Apartheid and Their after Life.” Transformation 47: 50–74. http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/africanjournals/html/itemdetail.cfm?recordID=785
   Google Scholar
• Schimmele, C., and W. Zheng 2015. “The New Immigration and Ethnic Identity.” Population Change and Lifecourse Discussion Paper Series 3 (1). Accessed 5 March 2020. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/pclc/vol3/iss1/1/
   Google Scholar
• Seekings, J. 2008. “The Continuing Salience of Race: Discrimination and Diversity in South Africa.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 26 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1080/02589000701782612.
   Google Scholar
• Sharp, J. 2008. “Fortress SA: Xenophobic Violence in South Africa.” Anthropology Today 24 (4): 1–3. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8322.2008.00597.x.
   Google Scholar
• Smit, R. 2015. “Trying to Make South Africa My Home’: Integration into the Host Society and the Wellbeing of Refugee Families.” Journal of Comparative Family Studies 46 (1): 39–55. doi:10.3138/jcfs.46.1.39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statistics South Africa. 2012. Income and Expenditure of Households 2010/2011: Statistical Release. P0100. Accessed 19 January 2018 www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0100/P01002011.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Tewolde, A. I. 2020. “Assumed to Have a Race’: Everyday Encounters of Refugees with Racial Ascription in South Africa.” Journal of Immigrant and Refugee Studies 18 (4): 375–389. doi:10.1080/15562948.2019.1677975.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treitlern, B. 2013. The Ethnic Project. Transforming Racial Fiction into Ethnic Factions. California: Stanford University Press Stanford.
   Google Scholar
• Vandeyar, S. 2012. “Immigrant Students’ Shifting Identifications in South African Schools.” International Journal of Educational Development 32 (2): 232–240. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.03.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vargas-Ramos, C. 2014. “Migrating Race: Migration and Racial Identification among Puerto Ricans.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 37 (3): 383–404. doi:10.1080/01419870.2012.672759.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters, M. 1994. “Ethnic and Racial Identities of Second-Generation Black Immigrants in New York City.” International Migration Review 28 (4): 795–820. doi:10.1177/019791839402800408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weldehaimanot, S. 2009. “Eritrea: Constitutional, Legislative and Administrative Provisions Concerning Indigenous Peoples. In the Constitutional and Legislative Protection of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.” country reports, compiled by International labour organization and the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights, pp. 1–60. Pretoria: Centre for Human Rights.
   Google Scholar
• Woldemikael, T. 2005. “Eritrea’s Identity as a Cultural Crossroads.” In Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World, edited by P. R. Spickard. New York; London: Routledge 337–354.
   Google Scholar