Building design and operational choices that impact indoor exposures to outdoor particulate matter inside residences

References

• Abt, E., H.H. Suh, P. Catalano, and P. Koutrakis. 2000. Relative contribution of outdoor and indoor particle sources to indoor concentrations. Environmental Science & Technology 34:3579–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, R., L. Wallace, T. Larson, L. Sheppard, and L.J.S. Liu. 2004. Estimated hourly personal exposures to ambient and nonambient particulate matter among sensitive populations in Seattle, Washington. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 54:1197–211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, R.W., S.D. Adar, E. Avol, M. Cohen, C.L. Curl, T. Larson, L.-J.S. Liu, L. Sheppard, and J.D. Kaufman. 2012. Modeling the residential infiltration of outdoor PM2.5 in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis and air pollution (MESA Air). Environmental Health Perspectives 120:824830.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ASHRAE. 2007. Standard 52.2, Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
   Google Scholar
• ASHRAE. 2008. Guideline 26, Guideline for Field Testing of General Ventilation Devices and Systems for Removal Efficiency In-Situ by Particle Size and Resistance to Flow. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
   Google Scholar
• ASHRAE. 2013. Standard 62.2, Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
   Google Scholar
• Baxter, L.K., J. Burke, M. Lunden, B.J. Turpin, D.Q. Rich, K. Thevenet-Morrison, N. Hodas, and H. Özkaynak. 2013. Influence of human activity patterns, particle composition, and residential air exchange rates on modeled distributions of PM2.5 exposure compared with central-site monitoring data. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 1:195–204.
   Google Scholar
• Baxter, L.K., M. Franklin, H. Özkaynak, B.D. Schultz, and L.M. Neas. 2013. The use of improved exposure factors in the interpretation of fine particulate matter epidemiological results. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health 6:195–204.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baxter, L.K., R.J. Wright, C.J. Paciorek, F. Laden, H.H. Suh, and J.I. Levy. 2010. Effects of exposure measurement error in the analysis of health effects from traffic-related air pollution. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 20:101–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, D., and P. Koutrakis. 2006. Determining the infiltration of outdoor particles in the indoor environment using a dynamic model. Journal of Aerosol Science 37:766–85.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhangar, S., N.A. Mullen, S.V. Hering, N.M. Kreisberg, and W.W. Nazaroff. 2011. Ultrafine particle concentrations and exposures in seven residences in northern California. Indoor Air 21:132–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brook, R.D., S. Rajagopalan, C.A. Pope, J.R. Brook, A. Bhatnagar, A.V. Diez-Roux, F. Holguin, Y. Hong, R.V. Luepker, M.A. Mittleman, A. Peters, D. Siscovick, S.C. Smith, L. Whitsel, and J.D. Kaufman. 2010. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 121:2331–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burroughs, H.E.B., and K.E. Kinzer. 1998. Improved filtration in residential environments. ASHRAE Journal 40:47–51.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chao, C.Y.H., M.P. Wan, and E.C.K. Cheng. 2003. Penetration coefficient and deposition rate as a function of particle size in non-smoking naturally ventilated residences. Atmospheric Environment 37:4233–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, C., and B. Zhao. 2011. Review of relationship between indoor and outdoor particles: I/O ratio, infiltration factor and penetration factor. Atmospheric Environment 45:275–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, C., B. Zhao, and C.J. Weschler. 2012. Indoor exposure to “outdoor PM10”. Epidemiology 23:870–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebelt, S.T., W.E. Wilson, and M. Brauer. 2005. Exposure to ambient and nonambient components of particulate matter: a comparison of health effects. Epidemiology 16:396–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Orch, Z., B. Stephens, and M.S. Waring. 2014. Predictions and determinants of size-resolved particle infiltration factors in single-family homes in the U.S. Building and Environment 74:106–18.
   Google Scholar
• Fogh, C., M. Byrne, J. Roed, and A. Goddard. 1997. Size specific indoor aerosol deposition measurements and derived I/O concentrations ratios. Atmospheric Environment 31:2193–203.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fugler, D., D. Bowser, and W. Kwan. 2000. The effects of improved residential furnace filtration on airborne particles. ASHRAE Transactions 106:317–26.
   Google Scholar
• Hanley, J.T., D.S. Ensor, D.D. Smith, and L.E. Sparks. 1994. Fractional aerosol filtration efficiency of in-duct ventilation air cleaners. Indoor Air 4:169–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He, C., L. Morawska, and D. Gilbert. 2005. Particle deposition rates in residential houses. Atmospheric Environment 39:3891–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodas, N., Q. Meng, M.M. Lunden, D.Q. Rich, H. Özkaynak, L.K. Baxter, Q. Zhang, and B.J. Turpin. 2012. Variability in the fraction of ambient fine particulate matter found indoors and observed heterogeneity in health effect estimates. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 22:448–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodas, N., B.J. Turpin, M.M. Lunden, L.K. Baxter, H. Özkaynak, J. Burke, P. Ohman-Strickland, K. Thevenet-Morrison, J.B. Kostis, and D.Q. Rich. 2013. Refined ambient PM2.5 exposure surrogates and the risk of myocardial infarction. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 22:573–80.
   Google Scholar
• Howard-Reed, C., L.A. Wallace, and S.J. Emmerich. 2003. Effect of ventilation systems and air filters on decay rates of particles produced by indoor sources in an occupied townhouse. Atmospheric Environment 37:5295–306.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, P., J.E. Cummings, J. Sonne, R. Vieira, and J. Klongerbo. 1997. The effect of residential equipment capacity on energy use, demand, and run-time. ASHRAE Transactions 103:297–303.
   Google Scholar
• Jamriska, M., L. Morawska, and B.A. Clark. 2000. Effect of ventilation and filtration on submicrometer particles in an indoor environment. Indoor Air 10:19–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kearney, J., L. Wallace, M. MacNeill, X. Xu, K. VanRyswyk, H. You, R. Kulka, and A.J. Wheeler. 2011. Residential indoor and outdoor ultrafine particles in Windsor, Ontario. Atmospheric Environment 45:7583–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klepeis, N., and W. Nazaroff. 2006. Modeling residential exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke. Atmospheric Environment 40:4393–407.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klepeis, N.E., W.C. Nelson, W.R. Ott, J.P. Robinson, A.M. Tsang, P. Switzer, J.V. Behar, S.C. Hern, and W.H. Engelmann. 2001. The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 11:231–52.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koenig, J.Q., T.F. Mar, R.W. Allen, K. Jansen, T. Lumley, J.H. Sullivan, C.A. Trenga, T.V. Larson, and L.-J.S. Liu. 2005. Pulmonary effects of indoor- and outdoor-generated particles in children with asthma. Environmental Health Perspectives 113:499–503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, A.C.K. 2002. Particle deposition indoors: A review. Indoor Air 12:211–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, A.C.K., and W.W. Nazaroff. 2000. Modeling indoor particle deposition from turbulent flow onto smooth surfaces. Journal of Aerosol Science 31:463–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, D., and W.W. Nazaroff. 2001. Modeling pollutant penetration across building envelopes. Atmospheric Environment 35:4451–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, D.-L., and W.W. Nazaroff. 2003. Particle penetration through building cracks. Aerosol Science and Technology 37:565–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, C.M., H.H. Suh, P.J. Catalano, and P. Koutrakis. 2001a. Using time- and size-resolved particulate data to quantify indoor penetration and deposition behavior. Environmental Science & Technology 35:2089–99.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, C.M., H.H. Suh, L. Kobzik, P.J. Catalano, Y.Y. Ning, and P. Koutrakis. 2001b. A pilot investigation of the relative toxicity of indoor and outdoor fine particles: In vitro effects of endotoxin and other particulate properties. Environmental Health Perspectives 109:1019–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lunden, M.M., T.L. Thatcher, S.V. Hering, and N.J. Brown. 2003. Use of time- and chemically resolved particulate data to characterize the infiltration of outdoor PM2.5 into a residence in the San Joaquin Valley. Environmental Science & Technology 37:4724–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacIntosh, D.L., T. Minegishi, M. Kaufman, B.J. Baker, J.G. Allen, J.I. Levy, and T.A. Myatt. 2010. The benefits of whole-house in-duct air cleaning in reducing exposures to fine particulate matter of outdoor origin: A modeling analysis. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 20:213–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacIntosh, D.L., T.A. Myatt, J.F. Ludwig, B.J. Baker, H.H. Suh, and J.D. Spengler. 2008. Whole house particle removal and clean air delivery rates for in-duct and portable ventilation systems. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 58:1474–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacNeill, M., J. Kearney, L. Wallace, M. Gibson, M.E. Héroux, J. Kuchta, J.R. Guernsey, and A.J. Wheeler. 2014. Quantifying the contribution of ambient and indoor-generated fine particles to indoor air in residential environments. Indoor Air 24:362–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacNeill, M., L. Wallace, J. Kearney, R.W. Allen, K. Van Ryswyk, S. Judek, X. Xu, and A. Wheeler. 2012. Factors influencing variability in the infiltration of PM2.5 mass and its components. Atmospheric Environment 61:518–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAuley, T.R., R. Fisher, X. Zhou, P.A. Jaques, and A.R. Ferro. 2010. Relationships of outdoor and indoor ultrafine particles at residences downwind of a major international border crossing in Buffalo, NY. Indoor Air 20:298–308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meng, Q.Y., D. Spector, S. Colome, and B. Turpin. 2009. Determinants of indoor and personal exposure to PM2.5 of indoor and outdoor origin during the RIOPA study. Atmospheric Environment 43:5750–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meng, Q.Y., B.J. Turpin, L. Korn, C.P. Weisel, M. Morandi, S. Colome, J. Zhang, T. Stock, D. Spektor, A. Winer, L. Zhang, J.H. Lee, R. Giovanetti, W. Cui, J. Kwon, S. Alimokhtari, D. Shendell, J. Jones, C. Farrar, and S. Maberti. 2005. Influence of ambient (outdoor) sources on residential indoor and personal PM2.5 concentrations: Analyses of RIOPA data. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 15:17–28.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meng, Q.Y., B.J. Turpin, A. Polidori, J.H. Lee, C. Weisel, M. Morandi, S. Colome, T. Stock, A. Winer, and J. Zhang. 2005. PM2.5 of ambient origin: Estimates and exposure errors relevant to PM epidemiology. Environmental Science & Technology 39:5105–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, K.A., D.S. Siscovick, L. Sheppard, K. Shepherd, J.H. Sullivan, G.L. Anderson, and J.D. Kaufman. 2007. Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. New England Journal of Medicine 356:447–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosley, R.B., D.J. Greenwell, L.E. Sparks, Z. Guo, W.G. Tucker, R. Fortmann, and C. Whitfield. 2001. Penetration of ambient fine particles into the indoor environment. Aerosol Science and Technology 34:127–36.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, D.M., and D.E. Burmaster. 1995. Residential air exchange rates in the United States: Empirical and estimated parametric distributions by season and climatic region. Risk Analysis 15:459–65.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Offermann, F. 2009. Ventilation and indoor air quality in new homes. Report No. CEC-500-2009-085. Sacramento, CA: Public Interest Energy Research (PIER), California Energy Commission and California Air Resources Board.
   Google Scholar
• Offermann, F.J., R.G. Sextro, W.J. Fisk, D.T. Grimsrud, W.W. Nazaroff, A.V. Nero, K.L. Revzan, and J. Yater. 1985. Control of respirable particles in indoor air with portable air cleaners. Atmospheric Environment 19:1761–71.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Offermann, F.J.I., S.A. Loiselle, and G. Sextro. 1992. Performance of air cleaners in a residential forced air system. ASHRAE Journal 34(July):51–57.
   Google Scholar
• Ozkaynak, H., J. Xue, J. Spengler, L. Wallace, E. Pellizzari, and P. Jenkins. 1996. Personal exposure to airborne particles and metals: Results from the particle TEAM study in Riverside. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 6:57–78.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parker, D.S., J.R. Sherwin, R.A. Raustad, and D.B. Shirey. 1997. Impact of evaporator coil airflow in residential air-conditioning systems. ASHRAE Transactions 103:395–405.
   Google Scholar
• Penttinen, P., K.L. Timonen, P. Tiittanen, A. Mirme, J. Ruuskanen, and J. Pekkanen. 2001. Ultrafine particles in urban air and respiratory health among adult asthmatics. European Respiratory Journal 17:428–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persily, A., A. Musser, and S.J. Emmerich. 2010. Modeled infiltration rate distributions for U.S. housing. Indoor Air 20:473–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, C.A., R.T. Burnett, M.J. Thun, E.E. Calle, D. Krewski, K. Ito, and G.D. Thurston. 2002. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Journal of the American Medical Association 287:1132–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, C.A., and D.W. Dockery. 2006. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 56:709–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor, J. 1997. Field measurements of new residential air conditioners in Phoenix, Arizona. ASHRAE Transactions 103:406–15.
   Google Scholar
• Riley, W.J., T.E. McKone, A.C.K. Lai, and W.W. Nazaroff. 2002. Indoor particulate matter of outdoor origin: Importance of size-dependent removal mechanisms. Environmental Science & Technology 36:200–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rim, D., L. Wallace, and A. Persily. 2010. Infiltration of outdoor ultrafine particles into a test house. Environmental Science & Technology 44:5908–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, B.C., W.W. Delp, P.N. Price, and M.G. Apte. 2011. Performance of installed cooking exhaust devices. Indoor Air 22:224–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sippola, M., and W. Nazaroff. 2004. Experiments measuring particle deposition from fully developed turbulent flow in ventilation ducts. Aerosol Science and Technology 38:914–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, B. 2013. Building design and operational choices that impact indoor exposures to outdoor particulate matter inside residences. Proceedings of ASHRAE IAQ 2013: Environmental Health in Low Energy Buildings, Vancouver, BC, Canada, October 15–18.
   Google Scholar
• Stephens, B., J. Siegel, and A. Novoselac. 2010a. Energy implications of filtration in residential and light-commercial construction. ASHRAE Research Project-1299, ASHRAE, Atlanta.
   Google Scholar
• Stephens, B., and J.A. Siegel. 2012a. Comparison of test methods for determining the particle removal efficiency of filters in residential and light-commercial central HVAC systems. Aerosol Science and Technology 46:504–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, B., and J.A. Siegel. 2012b. Penetration of ambient submicron particles into single-family residences and associations with building characteristics. Indoor Air 22:501–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, B., and J.A. Siegel. 2013. Ultrafine particle removal by residential HVAC filters. Indoor Air 23:488–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, B., J.A. Siegel, and A. Novoselac. 2010b. Energy implications of filtration in residential and light-commercial buildings (RP-1299). ASHRAE Transactions 116:346–57.
   Google Scholar
• Stephens, B., J.A. Siegel, and A. Novoselac. 2011. Operational characteristics of residential and light-commercial air-conditioning systems in a hot and humid climate zone. Building and Environment 46:1972–83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stölzel, M., S. Breitner, J. Cyrys, M. Pitz, G. Wölke, W. Kreyling, J. Heinrich, H.-E. Wichmann, and A. Peters. 2007. Daily mortality and particulate matter in different size classes in Erfurt, Germany. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 17:458–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thatcher, T. 2002. Effects of room furnishings and air speed on particle deposition rates indoors. Atmospheric Environment 36:1811–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thatcher, T.L., and D.W. Layton. 1995. Deposition, resuspension, and penetration of particles within a residence. Atmospheric Environment 29:1487–97.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thatcher, T.L., M.M. Lunden, K.L. Revzan, R.G. Sextro, and N.J. Brown. 2003. A concentration rebound method for measuring particle penetration and deposition in the indoor environment. Aerosol Science and Technology 37:847–64.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornburg, J., D.S. Ensor, C.E. Rodes, P.A. Lawless, L.E. Sparks, and R.B. Mosley. 2001. Penetration of particles into buildings and associated physical factors. Part I: Model development and computer simulations. Aerosol Science and Technology 34:284–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornburg, J.W., C.E. Rodes, P.A. Lawless, C.D. Stevens, and R.W. Williams. 2004. A pilot study of the influence of residential HAC duty cycle on indoor air quality. Atmospheric Environment 38:1567–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vette, A., A. Rea, P. Lawless, C. Rodes, G. Evans, V.R. Highsmith, and L. Sheldon. 2001. Characterization of indoor–outdoor aerosol concentration relationships during the Fresno PM exposure studies. Aerosol Science and Technology 34:118–26.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Klot, S., G. Wölke, T. Tuch, J. Heinrich, D.W. Dockery, J. Schwartz, W.G. Kreyling, H.E. Wichmann, and A. Peters. 2002. Increased asthma medication use in association with ambient fine and ultrafine particles. European Respiratory Journal 20:691–702.
   Google Scholar
• Wallace, L., S.J. Emmerich, and C. Howard-Reed. 2004. Effect of central fans and in-duct filters on deposition rates of ultrafine and fine particles in an occupied townhouse. Atmospheric Environment 38:405–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace, L., W. Kindzierski, J. Kearney, M. MacNeill, M.-È. Héroux, and A.J. Wheeler. 2013. Fine and ultrafine particle decay rates in multiple homes. Environmental Science & Technology 47:12929–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace, L.A., S.J. Emmerich, and C. Howard-Reed. 2002. Continuous measurements of air change rates in an occupied house for 1 year: The effect of temperature, wind, fans, and windows. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 12:296–306.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waring, M.S., and J.A. Siegel. 2008. Particle loading rates for HVAC filters, heat exchangers, and ducts. Indoor Air 18:209–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waring, M.S., J.A. Siegel, and R.L. Corsi. 2008. Ultrafine particle removal and generation by portable air cleaners. Atmospheric Environment 42:5003–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weichenthal, S., A. Dufresne, and C. Infante-Rivard. 2007. Indoor ultrafine particles and childhood asthma: exploring a potential public health concern. Indoor Air 17:81–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, R., J. Suggs, A. Rea, L. Sheldon, C. Rodes, and J. Thornburg. 2003. The Research Triangle Park particulate matter panel study: Modeling ambient source contribution to personal and residential PM mass concentrations. Atmospheric Environment 37:5365–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu, Y., W. Hinds, M. Krudysz, T. Kuhn, J. Froines, and C. Sioutas. 2005. Penetration of freeway ultrafine particles into indoor environments. Journal of Aerosol Science 36:303–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar