Healthcare facility-onset, healthcare facility-associated Clostridioides difficile infection in Veterans with spinal cord injury and disorder

References

• Gerding DN, Johnson S, Peterson LR, Mulligan ME, Silva Jr J. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1995;16(8):459–77. PMID: 7594392. doi: 10.2307/30141083
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald LC, Owings M, Jernigan DB. Clostridium difficile infection in patients discharged from US short-stay hospitals, 1996-2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(3):409–15. doi:10.3201/eid1205.051064. PMID: 16704777. doi: 10.3201/eid1205.051064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redelings MD, Sorvillo F, Mascola L. Increase in Clostridium difficile-related mortality rates, United States, 1999-2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(9):1417–9. doi:10.3201/eid1309.061116. PMID: 18252127. doi: 10.3201/eid1309.061116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, Kelly CP, Loo VG, McDonald LC, et al. Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2010;31(5):431–55. doi:10.1086/651706. PMID: 20307191. doi: 10.1086/651706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerding DN, Olson MM, Peterson LR, Teasley DG, Gebhard RL, Schwartz ML, Lee JT. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis in adults. A prospective case-controlled epidemiologic study. Arch Intern Med. 1986;146(1):95–100. PMID: 3942469. doi: 10.1001/archinte.1986.00360130117016
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yip C, Loeb M, Salama S, Moss L, Olde J. Quinolone use as a risk factor for nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2001;22(9):572–5. doi:10.1086/501954. PMID: 11732787. doi: 10.1086/501954
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCusker ME, Harris AD, Perencevich E, Roghmann MC. Fluoroquinolone use and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:730–3. doi:10.3201/eid0906.020385. PMID: 12781017. doi: 10.3201/eid0906.020385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaynes R, Rimland D, Killum E, Lowery HK, Johnson TM, Killgore G, et al. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in a long-term care facility: association with gatifloxacin use. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(5):640–5. doi:10.1086/381551. PMID: 14986246. doi: 10.1086/381551
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans CT, Safdar N. Current trends in the epidemiology and outcomes of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60(Suppl 2):S66–S71. doi:10.1093/cid/civ140. PMID: 25922403. doi: 10.1093/cid/civ140
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Magill SS, Edwards JR, Bamberg DG, Kainer MA, Lynfield R, Maloney M, et al. Multistate point-prevalence survey of health care-associated infections. N Engl J Med. 2014;370(13):1198–208. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1306801. PMID: 24670166. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1306801
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner C, Barret M, Weiss A. HCUP Projections; Clostridium difficile hospitalizations 2001 to 2013. Rockville (MD): U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2014. HCUP Projections Report #2014-01. [cited 2019 July 16]. Available from https://hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/projections/2014-01.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). Vital Signs: Preventing Clostridium difficile infections. MMWR. 2012;61(9):157–62. PMID: 22398844.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Evans ME, Simbartl LA, Kralovic SM, Jain R, Roselle GA. Clostridium difficile infections in Veterans Health Administration acute care facilities. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(8):1037–42. doi:10.1086/677151. PMID: 25026621. doi: 10.1086/677151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control. Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, 2013. Atlanta (GA): National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; [accessed 2019 July 16]. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/threat-report-2013/pdf/ar-threats-2013-508.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Montgomerie JZ. Infections in patients with spinal cord injuries. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;25(6):1285–90. doi:10.1086/516144. PMID: 9431366. doi: 10.1086/516144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans CT, LaVela SL, Weaver FM, Priebe M, Sandford P, Niemiec P, Miskevics S, Prada JP. Epidemiology of hospital-acquired infections in veterans with spinal cord injury and disorder. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29(3):234–42. doi:10.1086/527509. PMID: 18248306. doi: 10.1086/527509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marciniak C, Chen D, Stein AC, Semik PE. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile colonization at admission to rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87(8):1086–90. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2006.03.020. PMID: 16876554. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2006.03.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mylotte JM, Graham R, Kahler L, Young BL, Goodnough S. Impact of nosocomial infection on length of stay and functional improvement among patients admitted to an acute rehabilitation unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2001;22(2):83–87. doi:10.1086/501868. PMID: 11232883. doi: 10.1086/501868
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramanathan S, Johnson S, Burns SP, Kralovic SM, Goldstein B, Smith B, Gerding DN, Evans CT. Recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection in Veterans with spinal cord injury & disorder. Am J Infect Control. 2014;42(2):168–73. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2013.08.009. PMID: 24485372. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2013.08.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balbale SN, Johnson S, Burns SP, Kralovic SM, Goldstein B, Gerding DN, Evans CT. Community-associated Clostridium difficile infection among Veterans with spinal cord injury and disorder. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2014;35(5):577–80. doi:10.1086/675830. PMID: 24709729. doi: 10.1086/675830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. Andre JR, Smith BM, Stroupe KT, Burns S, Evans CT, Ripley D, Keran L, Zhiing H, Hogan T, Weaver F. A comparison of costs and helath care utilization for Veterans with traumatic and nontraumatic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 2011;16(4):27–42. doi:10.1310/sci1604-27 doi: 10.1310/sci1604-27
   Google Scholar
• McDonald LC, Coignard B, Dubberke E, Song X, Horan T, Kutty PK. Recommendations for surveillance of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2007;28(2):140–5. doi:10.1086/511798. PMID: 17265394. doi: 10.1086/511798
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) Manual: Patient Safety Component, Protocol Multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO) and Clostridium difficile-Associated Disease (CDAD) Module. Center for Disease Control and Prevention [serial online] 2008; [cited 2019 July 16]. http://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/PDFs/slides/MDRO_CDAD_Proc_OutTrainslides.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Gardiner JC, Luo Z, Roman LA. Fixed effects, random effects and GEE: what are the differences? Stat Med. 2009;28(2):221–39. doi:10.1002/sim.3478. PMID: 19012297. doi: 10.1002/sim.3478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coxe S, West SG, Aiken LS. The analysis of count data: a gentle introduction to poisson regression and its alternatives. J Pers Assess. 2009;91(2):121–36. doi:10.1080/00223890802634175. PMID: 19205933. doi: 10.1080/00223890802634175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walbrown MA, Aspinall SL, Bayliss NK, Stone RA, Cunningham F, Squier CL, Good CB. Evaluation of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with a drug formulary change in preferred fluoroquinolones. J Manag Care Pharm. 2008;14(1):34–40. doi:10.18553/jmcp.2008.14.1.34. PMID: 18240880. doi: 10.18553/jmcp.2008.14.1.34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goto M, O'Shea AMJ, Livorsi DJ, McDanel JS, Jones MM, Richardson KK, et al. The effect of a nationwide infection control program expansion on hospital-onset gram-negative rod bacteremia in 130 Veterans Health Administration Medical Centers: an interrupted time-series analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(5):642–50. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw423. PMID: 27358355. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw423
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain R, Kralovic SM, Evans ME, Ambrose M, Simbartl LA, Obrosky DS, Render ML, Freyberg RW, Jernigan JA, Muder RR, et al. Veterans Affairs initiative to prevent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(15):1419–30. doi 10.1056/NEJMoa1007474. PMID: 21488764. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1007474
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans ME, Kralovic SM, Simbartl LA, Obrosky DS, Hammond MC, Goldstein B, Evans CT, Roselle GA, Jain R. Prevention of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in spinal cord injury units. Am J Infect Control. 2013;41(5):422–6. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2012.06.006. PMID: 23149087. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2012.06.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slimings C, Riley TV. Antibiotics and hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: update of systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69(4):881–91. doi:10.1093/jac/dkt477. PMID: 24324224. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkt477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens V, Dumyati G, Fisher SG, van Wijngaarden E. Cumulative antibiotic exposures over time and the risk of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53(1):42–48. doi:10.1093/cid/cir301. PMID: 21653301. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mylotte JM, Graham R, Kahler L, Young L, Goodnough S. Epidemiology of nosocomial infection and resistant organisms in patients admitted for the first time to an acute rehabilitation unit. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(3):425–35. doi:10.1086/313708. PMID: 10722423. doi: 10.1086/313708
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janarthan S, Ditah I, Adler DG, Ehrinpreis MN. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and proton pump inhibitor therapy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107(7):1001–10. doi:10.1038/ajg.2012.179. PMID: 22710578. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2012.179
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwok CS, Arthur AK, Anibueze CL, Singh S, Cavallazzi R, Loke YK. Risk of Clostridium difficile infection with acid suppressing drugs and antibiotics: meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107(7):1011–9. doi:10.1038/ajg.2012.108. PMID: 22525304. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2012.108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barletta JF, Scalar DA. Proton pump inhibitors increase the risk for hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection in critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2010;18(6):714. doi:10.1186/s13054-014-0714-7. PMID: 25540023. doi: 10.1186/s13054-014-0714-7
   Google Scholar
• Tleyjeh IM, Abdulhak AB, Riaz M, Garbat MA, Al-Tannir M, Alasmari FA, et al. The association between histamine 2 receptor antagonist use and Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2013;8(3):e56498. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056498 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056498
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon D, Young LR, Reddy S, Bergman C, Young JD. Incidence of Clostridium difficile infection in patients receiving high-risk antibiotics with or without a proton pump inhibitor. J Hosp Infect. 2016;92(2):173–7. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2015. PMID: 26616410. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2015.10.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens V, Dumyati G, Brown J, Wijngaarden E. Differential risk of Clostridium difficile infection with proton pump inhibitor use by level of antibiotic exposure. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2011;20(10):1035–42. doi:10.1002/pds.2198. PMID: 21833992. doi: 10.1002/pds.2198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Argamany JR, Aitken SL, Lee GC, Boyd NK, Revels KR. Regional and seasonal variation in Clostridium difficile infections among hospitalized patients in the United States 2001-2010. Am J Infect Control. 2015;43(5):435–40. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2014.11.018. PMID: 25952045. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2014.11.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zilberberg MD, Tabak YP, Sievert DM, Derby KG, Johannes RS, Sun X, McDonald LC. Using electronic health information to risk-stratify rates of Clostridium difficile infection in US hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2011;32(7):649–55. doi:10.1086/660360. PMID: 21666394. doi: 10.1086/660360
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tartof SY, Yu KC, Wei R, Tseng HF, Jacobsen SJ, Rieg GK. . incidence of polymerase chain reaction-diagnosed Clostridium difficile in a large high-risk cohort, 2011–2012. Mayo Clin Proc. 2014;89(9):1229–38. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.04.027. PMID: 25064782. doi: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.04.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanna S, Pardi DS, Aronson SL, Kammer PP, Orenstein R, St Sauver JL, Harmesen WS, Zinsmeister AR. The epidemiology of communityacquired Clostridium difficile infection: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterology. 2012;107(1):89–95. doi:10.1038/ajg.2011.398. PMID: 22108454. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2011.398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick MA, Suda KJ, Safdar N, Goldstein B, Jones MM, Poggensee L, Ramanathan S, LeWAn R, Evans CT. Unique risks and clinical outcomes associated with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase Enterobacteriaceae in Veterans with spinal cord injury/disorder: a case-case-control study. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2016;37(7):768–76. doi:10.1017/ice.2016.60. PMID: 27025908. doi: 10.1017/ice.2016.60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans CT, Fitzpatrick MA, Jones MM, Burns SP, Poggensee L, Ramanathan S, et al. Prevalence and factors associated with multidrug-resistant gram-negative organisms in patients with spinal cord injury. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2017;38(12):1464–71. doi:10.1017/ice.2017.238. PMID: 29157323. doi: 10.1017/ice.2017.238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramanathan S, Suda KJ, Fitzpatrick M, Poggensee L, LaVela SL, Burns SP, Evans CT. Multi-drug resistant Acinetobacter: risk factors and outcomes in Veterans with spinal cord injuries and disorders. Am J Infect Control. 2017;45(11):1183–9. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2017.06.016. PMID: 28757086. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2017.06.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center. Facts and figures at a glance. Birmingham (AL): University of Alabama at Birmingham; 2016; [accessed 2019 Jul 16]. https://www.nscisc.uab.edu/Public/Facts%202016.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Suda KJ, Fitzpatrick M, Ramanathan S, Burns S, Safdar N, Miskevics S, Evans CT. Antibiotic use metrics in VA facilities caring for Veterans with spinal cord injury. Platform presentation. Paralyzed Veterans of America. National Harbor, MD, August 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Suda KJ, Patel UC, Sabzwari R, Cao L, Ramanathan S, Hill JN, Evans CT. Bacterial susceptibility patterns in patients with spinal cord injury and disorder (SCI/D): An opportunity for customized stewardship tools. Spinal Cord. 2016;54(11):1001–9. doi:10.1038/sc.2016.38. PMID: 27001131. doi: 10.1038/sc.2016.38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar