414
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Ecological risk assessment of accidental release of flowback water: A conceptual framework

, , &
Pages 398-426 | Received 26 Jul 2017, Accepted 24 Sep 2017, Published online: 10 Nov 2017

References

  • Adelman Jr IR. 1970. Effect of hydrogen sulfide on northern pike eggs and sac fry. Trans Am Fish Soc 99:501–09
  • Adelman Jr IR. 1972. Toxicity of hydrogen sulfide to goldfish (Carassius auratus) as influenced by temperature, oxygen, and bioassay techniques. J Fish Res Board Can 29(9):1309–17
  • Al-Daham NK, and Bhatti MN. 1977. Salinity tolerance of Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard) and Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch). J Fish Biol 11:309–13
  • Alam MK, and Maughan OE. 1995. Acute toxicity of heavy metals to common carp (Cyprinus carpio). J Environ Sci Health Part A: Environ Sci Eng Toxic Hazard Subst Control 30(8):1807–16
  • Alessi DS, Zolfaghari A, Kletke S, Gehman J, Allen DM, and Goss GG. 2017. Comparative analysis of hydraulic fracturing wastewater practices in unconventional shale development: Water sourcing, treatment and disposal practices. Can Water Resour J / Rev Can Des Ressources Hydriques 42(2):105–21.
  • ANZECC & ARMCANZ. 2000. Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, Vol. 1. Australian Water Association. Artarmon, NSW.
  • Baudouin MF, and Scoppa P. 1974. Acute toxicity of various metals to freshwater zooplankton. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 12(6):745–51
  • BCMOE. 2001. Ambient water quality guidelines for manganese. Retrieved November 7, 2016, from http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/BCguidelines/manganese/manganese.html
  • BCOGC. 2016. Water portal. Retrieved December 6, 2016, from http://waterportal.geoweb.bcogc.ca/#13/56.4059/-124.4584
  • Becklumb P. 2015. Shale Gas in Canada: Environmental Risks and Regulation. Library of Parliament. Ottawa, Canada.
  • Biesinger K, and Christensen G. 1972. Effects of various metals on survival, growth, reproduction, and metabolism of Daphnia magna. J Fish Board Can 29(12):1691–700
  • Birge WJ, Black JA, Westerman AG, Short TM, Taylor SB, Bruser DM, and Wallingford ED. 1985. Recommendations on numerical values for regulating iron and chloride concentrations for the purpose of protecting warm water species of aquatic life in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. Memorandum of Agreement No. 5429. Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet. Lexington, KY.
  • Blewett TA, Delompré PLM, He Y, Folkerts EJ, Flynn SL, Alessi DS, and Goss GG. 2017. Sublethal and reproductive effects of acute and chronic exposure to flowback and produced water from hydraulic fracturing on the water Flea Daphnia magna. Environ Sci Technol 51(5):3032–39
  • Bonn EW, and Follis BJ. 1967. Effects of hydrogen sulfide on channel catfish, ictalurus punctatus. Trans Am Fish Soc 96:31–36.
  • Boutet C, and Chaisemartin C. 1973. Specific toxic properties of metallic salts in austro-potamobius pallipes pallipes and orconectes limosus. C R Soc Biol 167(12):1933–38
  • Bowmer CT, Hooftman RN, Hanstveit AO, Venderbosch PWM, and Hoeven N Van der. 1998. The ecotoxicity and the biodegradability of lactic acid, alkyl lactate esters and lactate salts. Chemosphere 37(7):1998
  • Bright DA, and Addison J. 2002. Derivation of Matrix Soil Standards for Salt under the British Columbia Contaminated Sites Regulation. Victoria.
  • Bringolf RB, Cope WG, Eads CB, Lazaro PR, Barnhart MC, and Shea D. 2007. Acute and chronic toxicity of technical grade pesticides to glochidia and juveniles of freshwater mussels (Unionidae). Environ Toxicol Chem 26:2086–93
  • Broderius SJ, Smith LLJ, and Lind DT. 1977. Relative toxicity of free cyanide and dissolved sulfide forms to the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas). J Fish Res Board Can 34(12):2323–32
  • Burton GA, Basu N, Ellis BR, Kapo KE, Entrekin S, and Nadelhoffer K. 2014. Hydraulic “fracking”: Are surface water impacts an ecological concern? Enviro Toxicol Chem 33(8):1679–89
  • Calleja MC, Persoone G, and Geladi P. 1994. Comparative acute toxicity of the first 50 multicentre evaluation of in vitro cytotoxicity chemicals to aquatic non-vertebrates. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 26:69–78
  • CCA. 2014. Environmental Impacts of Shale Gas Extraction in Canada.
  • CCME. 1997. A Framework for Ecological Risk Assessment: Technical Appendices. Winnipeg, Manitoba.
  • CCME. 2007. A protocol for the derivation of water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life. Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines. Retrieved from www.ccme.ca/files/Resources/supporting_scientific…/protocol_aql_2007e.pdf
  • CCME. 2011. Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life: Chloride.
  • CCME. 2012. Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic Life NITRATE ION. Nano (3):1–7
  • CCREM. 2008. Canadian Water Quality Guidlines. Ottawa, Ontario.
  • Chen SS, Sun Y, Tsang DCW, Graham NJD, Sik Y, Feng Y, and Li X. 2017. Science of the total environment potential impact of flowback water from hydraulic fracturing on agricultural soil quality: Metal /metalloid bioaccessibility, Microtox bioassay, and enzyme activities. Sci Total Environ 579:1419–26
  • Clark JS, Brydon JE, and Hortie HJ. 1962. The clay minerals in some British Columbia Subsoils. Can J Soil Sci 42:296–301
  • Clemens HP, and Sneed KE. 1959. Lethal Doses of Several Commercial Chemicals for Fingerling Channel Catfish, Vol. 316. US Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015086537894;view=1up;seq=4
  • Collins SJ, and Russell RW. 2009. Toxicity of road salt to Nova Scotia amphibians. Environ Pollut 157:320–24
  • COSEWIC. (2016). Committee on status of wildlife in Canada. Retrieved December 7, 2016, from http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct4/printresult_e.cfm?SSGBox=4
  • Cowgill UM, and Milazzo DP. 1990. The sensitivity of two cladocerans to water quality variables: Salinity and hardness. Arch Hydrobiology 120:185–96
  • Dalzell DJB, and Macfarlane Naa. 1999. The toxicity of iron to brown trout and effects on the gills: A comparison of two grades of iron sulphate. J Fish Biol 55(2):301–15
  • De March BGE. 1988. Acute toxicity of binary mixtures of five cations (Cu2+, Cd2+, Zn2+, Mg2+, and K+) to the freshwater amphipod Gammarus lacustris (Sars): Alternative descriptive models. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 45(4):625–33
  • Duinker PN, and Greig LA. 2007. Scenario analysis in environmental impact assessment: Improving explorations of the future. Environ Impact Assess Rev 27(3):206–19
  • Elphick JRF, Bergh KD, and Bailey HC. 2011. Chronic toxicity of chloride to freshwater species: Effects of hardness and implications for water quality guidelines. Environ Toxicol Chem 30:239–46
  • Ewen C, Borchardt D, Richter S, and Hammerbacher R. 2012. Hydrofracking Risk Assessment. Berlin, Germany.
  • Findeling A, Ruy S, and Scopel E. 2003. Modeling the effects of a partial residue mulch on runoff using a physically based approach. J Hydrol 275:49–66
  • Flury M, and Papritz A. 1993. Bromide in the natural environment: Occurrence and toxicity. J Environ Qual 22(4):747–58
  • Fung DK, and Bewick PH. 1980. Short-term toxicity of aqueous hydrogen sulfide to representative fish species of lake huron. ASTM Spec Tech Publ 3:377–96.
  • Gagnon GA, Krkosek W, Anderson L, Mcbean E, Mohseni M, Bazri M, and Mauro I. 2016. Impacts of hydraulic fracturing on water quality: A review of literature, regulatory frameworks and an analysis of information gaps. Environ Rev 10(November 2015):1–10
  • Garibay R, and HallS. 2004. Chloride Threshold Recommendations for the Protection of Aquatic Life in the Upper Santa Clara River. The Advent Group. Brentwood, TN.
  • Gillis PL. 2011. Assessing the toxicity of sodium chloride to the glochidia of freshwater mussels: Implications for salinization of surface waters. Environ Pollut 159:1702–08
  • Gregory KB, Vidic RD, and Dzombak DA. 2011. Water management challenges associated with the production of shale gas by hydraulic fracturing. Elements 7(3):181–86
  • Gustafsson JP. (2014). Visual MINTEQ 3.1 user Guide. Retrieved from c:%5CProgram Files (x86)%5CVminteq31%5Cvminhelp.htm
  • GWPC. (2016). How casing protects groundwater. Retrieved March 15, 2016, from https://fracfocus.org/water-protection/casing-process
  • Hammonds JS, Hoffman FO, and Bartell SM. 1994. An Introductory Guide to Uncertainty Analysis in Environmental and Health Risk Assessment. https://doi.org/10.2172/10127301
  • Hedayati A, Hoseini SM, and Ghelichpour M. 2014. Acute toxicity of waterborne manganese to Rutilus caspicus (Yakovlev, 1870)—gill histopathology, immune indices, oxidative condition, and saltwater. Toxicol Environ Chem 96(10):1–11
  • Hinton MJ, and Eversole AG. 1979. Toxicity of ten chemicals commonly used in aquaculture to the black eel stage of the American eel. Proc World Mariculture Soc 10:554–60
  • Hoke RA, Gala WR, Drake JB, Giesy JP, and Flegler S. 1992. Bicarbonate as a potential confounding factor in cladoceran toxicity assessments on pore water from contaminated sediments. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 1633–40
  • Hughes JS. 1973. Acute toxicity of thirty chemicals to striped bass (Morone saxatilis). In: Presented at the Western Association of State Game and Fish Commissioners, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
  • IHS Accumap. 2016. IHS Accumap Dataset. Retrieved from https://www.ihs.com/products/oil-gas-tools-accumap.html
  • Ishio S. 1965. Behavior of Fish Exposed to Toxic Substances. Pergamon Press, London.
  • Jackman P. 2010. Email to M. Nowierski December 9. Reference toxicant data for NaCl tested on various aquatic organisms.
  • Jiang M, Hendrickson CT, and Vanbriesen JM. 2014. Life cycle water consumption and wastewater generation impacts of a Marcellus shale gas well. Environ Sci Technol 48(3):1911–20
  • Kargbo DM, Wilhelm RG, and Campbell DJ. 2010. Natural gas plays in the Marcellus shale: Challenges and potential opportunities. Environ Sci Technol 44(15):5679–84
  • Khangarot BSR, and PK A. 1989. Investigation of correlation between physicochemical properties of metals and their toxicity to the water flea daphnia magna straus. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 18:109–20.
  • Kuwayama Y, Olmstead S, and Krupnick A. 2015. Water quality and quantity impacts of hydraulic fracturing. Curr Sustainable/Renewable Ener Repo 2(1):17–24
  • Laverock MJ, Stephenson M, and Macdonald CR. 1995. Toxicity of iodine, iodide, and iodate to Daphnia magna and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 29(3):344–50
  • LeBlanc GA. 1980. Acute toxicity of priority pollutants to water flea (Daphnia magna). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 24(5):684–691
  • Leeuwen CJvan, and Hermens JLM. 2004 Risk Assessment of Chemicals: An Introduction. Springer, Netherlands.
  • Lester Y, Ferrer I, Thurman EM, Sitterley KA, Korak JA, Aiken G, and Linden KG. 2015. Characterization of hydraulic fracturing flowback water in Colorado: Implications for water treatment. Sci Total Environ 512,513:637–44
  • Lutz BD, Lewis AN, and Doyle MW. 2013. Generation, transport, and disposal of wastewater associated with Marcellus shale gas development. Water Resour Res 49(2):647–56
  • McPherson CA, Lawrence GS, Elphick JR, and Chapman PM. 2014. Development of a strontium chronic effects benchmark for aquatic life in freshwater. Environ Toxicol Chem 33(11):2472–78
  • Meays C, and Nordin R. 2013. Ambient Water Quality Guidelines For Sulphate: Technical Appendix.
  • Mount D, Erickson R, Highland T, Hockett R, Hoff D, Jenson CT, … Wisniewski S. 2016. The acute toxicity of major ion salts to Ceriodaphnia dubia: I. influence of background water chemistry. Environ Toxicol Chem 35(12):3039–57
  • Mount D, Gulley D, Hockett J, Garrison TD, and Evans JM. 1997a. Statistical models to predict the toxicity of major ions to Ceriodaphia dubia, Daphnia magna, and Pimephales promelas (Fathead minnows). Environ Toxicol Chem 16:2009–19
  • Mount D, Gulley D, Hockett R, Garrison T, and EVans JM. 1997b. Produced water series statistical models to predict the toxicity of major ions to ceriodaphnia dubia, daphnia magna and pimephales promelas (Fathead Minnows). Environ Toxicol Chem 16(10):2009–19
  • Mukhopadhyay MK, and Konar SK. 1984. Toxicity of copper, zinc and iron to fish, plankton and worm. Geobios 11(5):204–07.
  • Nazir M, Khan F, Amyotte P, and Sadiq R. 2008. Subsea release of oil from a riser: An ecological risk assessment. Risk Anal 28(5):1173–96
  • NRCAN. 2016a. British Columbia's Shale and Tight Resources. Retrieved May 21, 2016, from http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/sources/shale-tight-resources/17692
  • NRCAN. 2016b. Exploration and Production of Shale and Tight Resources. Retrieved May 29, 2017, from http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/sources/shale-tight-resources/17677
  • Oracle. (2016). Crystal Ball Version 11.1.2.3. Retrieved from http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/middleware/crystalball/overview/index.html
  • Oseid Jr, DM. 1974. Factors influencing acute toxicity estimates of hydrogen sulfide to freshwater invertebrates. Water Res 8(10):739–46
  • Pacholski LJ. 2009. Toxicity of Stable Strontium in Surface Freshwaters of the Oil Sands region in Alberta, Canada-Deriving an aquatic guidelines and refined chronic effects benchmark. University of Ulster.
  • Palisade Corporation. 2015a. @RISK: Risk Analysis and Simulation Add-in for Microsoft® Excel- User's Guide. Ithaca, New York City.
  • Palisade Corporation. (2015b). @RISK Version 7. Retrieved November 1, 2016, from http://www.palisade.com/risk/
  • Palmer CG. 2004. The development of a toxicity database using freshwater macroinvertebrates, and its application to the protection of South African water resources. S Afr J Sci 100:643–50
  • Peredo-Alvarez VM, Sarma S, and Nandini S. 2003. Combined effect concentrations of algal food (Chlorella vulgaris) and salt (sodium chloride) on the population growth of Brachionus calyciflorus and Brachionus patulus (Rotifera). Revista de Biología Tropical 51:399–408.
  • Phippen B, Horvath C, Nordin R, and Nagpal N. 2008a. Ambient Aquatic Life Guidelines for Iron (No. 9780772659903).
  • Phippen B, Horvath C, Nordin R, and Nagpal N. 2008b. Ambient Aquatic Life Guidelines for Iron- Overview Report (No. 9780772659897).
  • Rawls WJ, Brakensiek DL, Saxton KE, and Asae M. 1982. Estimation of soil water properties. Trans ASAE 25(5):1316–20
  • Refsgaard JC, van der Sluijs JP, Højberg AL, and Vanrolleghem PA. 2007. Uncertainty in the environmental modelling process—A framework and guidance. Environ Model Softw 22(11):1543–56
  • Regan H, Akcakaya H, Ferson S, Root K, Carroll S, and Ginzburg LR. 2003. Treatments of uncertainty and variability in ecological risk assessment of single-species populations. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 9(4):889–906
  • Reynolds FA, and Haines TA. 1980. Effects of chronic exposure to hydrogen sulphide on newly hatched brown trout Salmo trutta L. Environ Pollut 22:11–17
  • Rivard C, Lavoie D, Lefebvre R, Sejourne S, Lamontagne C, and Duchesne M. 2014. An overview of Canadian shale gas production and environmental concerns. Int J Coal Geol 126:64–76
  • Rozell DJ, and Reaven SJ. 2012. Water pollution risk associated with natural gas extraction from the Marcellus shale. Risk Anal 32(8):1382–93
  • Sadiq R. 2001. Drilling Waste Discharges in the Marine Environment: A Risk Based Decision Methodology. Memorial University of Newfoundland. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
  • Sanzo D, and Hecnar S. 2006. Effect of road de-icing salt (NaCl) on larval wood frogs (Rana sylvatica). Environ Pollut 140:247–56
  • Shaw-Allen P, and Suter II GW. 2016. CADDIS Volume 4: Data Analysis. Retrieved December 5, 2016, from https://www3.epa.gov/caddis/da_advanced_2.html
  • Shuhaimi-Othman M, Yakub N, Ramle NA, and Abas A. 2013. Comparative toxicity of eight metals on freshwater fish. Toxicol Ind Health 31(January):1–10
  • Siegel L. 2007. Hazard Identification for Human and Ecological Effects of Sodium Chloride Road Salt. State of New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services Water Division Watershed Management Bureau.
  • Slabbert JL, and VenterEA. 1999. Biological assays for aquatic toxicity testing. Water Sci Technol 39(10/11):367–73
  • Smith LLJ, and Oseid DM. 1974. Effect of hydrogen sulfide on development and survival of eight freshwater fish species. In: Blaxter JHS (ed), The Early Life History of Fish, Proceedings of an International Symposium, pp. 417–430. Oban, Scotland.
  • Smith LL, and Oseid DM. 1972. Effects of hydrogen sulfide on fish eggs and fry. Water Res 6(6):71–720.
  • Stammer HA. 1953. The effect of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia on characteristic animal forms in saprobiotic system (Der Einfly von Schwefelwasserstoff und Ammoniak auf tierische Leitformen des Sparobiensystems). Vom Wasser 20:34–71
  • Stephan CE. 1978a. Chronic Screening Toxicity Test with Daphnia Magna. Memo to D. Friedman, US EPA, p. 3, Washington, DC, 29th September.
  • Stephan CE. 1978b. Results of Toxicity Tests. Memo to J. Carroll, US EPA, p. 2, Washington, DC, 13th February.
  • Suter II GW. 1996. Guide for Developing Conceptual Models for Ecological Risk Assessments. Office of Scientific and Technical Information, Oak Ridge, TN.
  • Suter II GW. 2007. Ecological Risk Assessment. In: Suter II G.W. (ed.), 2nd ed, CRC Press, Boca Raton FL, USA.
  • Tatara CP, Newman MC, McCloskey JT, and Williams PL. 1998. Use of ion characteristics to predict relative toxicity of mono-, di-and trivalent metal ions: Caenorhabditis elegans LC50. Aquat Toxicol 42(4):255–69
  • Thornton KW, and Sauer JR. 1972. Physiological effects of NaCl on Chironomus attenuatus (Diptera: Chironomidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 65:872–75
  • Torres L, Yadav OP, and Khan E. 2015. A review on risk assessment techniques for hydraulic fracturing water and produced water management implemented in onshore unconventional oil and gas production. Sci Total Environ 539:478–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.030
  • US EPA. 1986. Quality Criteria for Water 1986 (No. EPA/440/5-86-001). Washington, DC.
  • US EPA. 1988. Superfund Exposure Assessment Manual (No. EPA/540/1-881001). Washington, DC.
  • US EPA. 1998. Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment (No. EPA/630/R-95/002F). Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1897/1552-8618(1992)11[1663:AFFERA]2.0.CO;2
  • US EPA. 1999. Understanding Variation in Partition Coefficient, Kd, Values (No. EPA 402-R-99-004A) (Vol. I). Washington, DC.
  • US EPA. 2005. Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities-Final (No. EPA530-R-05-006).
  • US EPA. 2007. Framework for Metals Risk Assessment (No. EPA 120/R-07/001). Washington, DC. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2013-09/documents/metals-risk-assessment-final.pdf
  • US EPA. 2015. Review of State and Industry Spill Data: Characterization of Hydaulic Fracturing-Related Spills (No. EPA/601/R-14/001). Washington, DC.
  • US EPA. 2016a. ECOTOX User Guide: ECOTOXicology Knowledgebase System. Version 4.0.
  • US EPA. 2016b. Hydraulic Fracturing for Oil and Gas: Impacts from the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle on Drinking Water Resources in the United States (No. EPA-600-R-16-236Fa). Washington, DC. Retrieved from https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/hfstudy/recordisplay.cfm?deid=332990
  • US EPA. 2016c. National recommended water quality criteria-aquatic life criteria table. Retrieved November 7, 2016, from https://www.epa.gov/wqc/national-recommended-water-quality-criteria-aquatic-life-criteria-table
  • US EPA. 2016d. Species sensitivity distribution generator. Retrieved November 1, 2016, from https://www3.epa.gov/caddis/da_software_ssdmacro.html
  • US EPA. 2016e. Superfund Chemical Data Matrix (SCDM) Methodology (No. 189740). Washington, D.C. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/superfund/superfund-chemical-data-matrix-scdm
  • Valenti TW, Cherry DS, Neves RJ, Locke BA, and Schmerfeld JJ. 2007. Case study: Sensitivity of mussel glochidia and regulatory test organisms to mercury and a reference toxicant. Freshwater Bivalve Ecotoxicology, pp. 351–367. SETAC Press, Pensacola, FL, USA.
  • Van Dam R, Hogan AC, McCullough CD, Houston MA, Humphrey CL, and Harford AJ. 2010. Aquatic toxicity of magnesium sulfate, and the influence of calcium, in very low ionic concentration water. Environ Toxicol Chem 29(2):410–21
  • Van der Vaart A. 2000. Asymptotic Statistics Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press.
  • Vedamanikam VJ, and Shazilli NAM. 2008. The effect of multi-generational exposure to metals and resultant change in median lethal toxicity tests values over subsequent generations. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 80(1):63–67. Cambridge, UK.
  • Vengosh A, Jackson RB, Warner N, Darrah TH, and Kondash A. 2014. A critical review of the risks to water resources from unconventional shale gas development and hydraulic fracturing in the United States. Environ Sci Technol 48(15):8334–48
  • Vidic RD, Brantley SL, Vandenbossche JM, Yoxtheimer D, and Abad JD. 2013. Impact of shale gas development on regional water quality. Science 340(6134): https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1235009
  • Viertel B. 1999. Salt tolerance of Rana temporaria: Spawning site selection and survival during embryonic development (Amphibia, Anura). Amphibia-Reptilia 20:161–71.
  • Vinot H, and Larpent JP. 1984. Water pollution by uranium ore treatment works. Hydrobiologia 112:125–29
  • Vosyliene MZ, Baltrenas P, and Kazlauskiene A. 2006. Toxicity of road maintenance salts to rainbow trout oncorhynchus mykiss. Ekologija 2:15–20
  • Wallen IE, Greer WC, and Lasater R. 2017. Toxicity to Gambusia affinis of certain pure chemicals in turbid water. Water Environ Fed 29(6):695–11 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25033364
  • Wang N, and Ingersoll CJ. 2010. Email to M. Nowierski December 20. Reference toxicity test data for NaCl and various aquatic invertebrates.
  • Wang W. 1986. Toxicity tests of aquatic pollutants by using common duckweed. Environ Pollut Ser B, Chem Phys 11(1):1–14
  • WHO. 2009. Bromide in Drinking-Water. World Health Organization. https://doi.org/05.03.2015
  • Williams DD, Williams NE, and Y C. 1999. Road salt contamination of groundwater in a major metropolitan area and development of a biological index to monitor its impact. Water Res, 34:127–38
  • Williams PL, and Dusenbery DB. 1990. Aquatic toxicity testing using the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Environ Toxicol Chem 9(10):1285–90
  • Xu J, Wang H, Liu Y, Ma M, Zhang T, Zheng X, and Zong M. 2016. Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in soils surrounding oil waste disposal areas. Environ Monit Assess 188(2):125
  • Ziemkiewicz P, Quaranta JD, and McCawley M. 2014. Practical measures for reducing the risk of environmental contamination in shale energy production. Environ Sci: Process Impacts 16(7):1692–99
  • Zolfaghari A, Dehghanpour H, Ghanbari E, and Bearinger D. 2016a. Fracture characterization using flowback salt-concentration transient. SPE J 21(1):4–6
  • Zolfaghari A, Dehghanpour H, Noel M, and Bearinger D. 2016b. Laboratory and field analysis of flowback water from gas shales. J Unconvent Oil Gas Resour 14:113–27
  • Zolfaghari A, Tang Y, Holyk J, Binazadeh M, Dehghanpour H, and Bearinger D. 2015. Advances in flowback chemical analysis of gas shales. In: SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition p. 18. Calgary, Alberta, Canada: Society of Petroleum Engineers. https://doi.org/10.2118/175925-MS

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.