Discipline Disproportionality and Policy Reform in Arkansas: Effects of State-Wide Limits on Exclusionary Discipline in Elementary School

References

• Anderson, K. P., & Ritter, G. W. (2017). Disparate use of exclusionary discipline: Evidence on inequities in school discipline from a U.S. state. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 25(49), 1–33. doi:10.14507/epaa.25.2787
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, K. P. (2018). Inequitable compliance: Implementation failure of a statewide student discipline reform. Peabody Journal of Education, 93(2), 244–263. doi:10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435052
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, K. P., Egalite, A. J., & Mills, J. N. (2019). Discipline reform: The impact of a statewide ban on suspensions for truancy. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 24(1), 68–91. doi:10.1080/10824669.2018.1537794
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, K. P., Ritter, G. W., & Zamarro, G. (2019). Understanding a vicious cycle: The relationship between student discipline and student academic outcomes. Educational Researcher, 48(5), 251–262. doi:10.3102/0013189X19848720
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, K. P. (2020). Academic, attendance, and behavioral outcomes of a suspension reduction policy: Lessons for school leaders and policy makers. Educational Administration Quarterly, 56(3), 435–471. doi:10.1177/0013161X19861138
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, K. P., & McKenzie, S. (2022). Local implementation of state-level discipline policy: Administrator perspectives and contextual factors associated with compliance. AERA Open, 8(1), 1–20. doi:10.1177/23328584221075341
   Google Scholar
• Amemiya, J., Mortenson, E., & Wang, M.-T. (2020). Minor infractions are not minor: School infractions for minor misconduct may increase adolescents’ defiant behavior and contribute to racial disparities in school discipline. The American Psychologist, 75(1), 23–36. doi:10.1037/amp0000475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Academy of Pediatrics. (2013). Out-of-school suspension and expulsion. Pediatrics, 131, e1000–e1007. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/3/e1000
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Annamma, S. A., Anyon, Y., Joseph, N. M., Farrar, J., Greer, E., Downing, B., & Simmons, J. (2019). Black girls and school discipline: The complexities of being overrepresented and understudied. Urban Education, 54(2), 211–242. doi:10.1177/0042085916646610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Annamma, S. A., Handy, T., Miller, A. L., & Jackson, E. (2020). Animating discipline disparities through debilitating practices: Girls of color and inequitable classroom interactions. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 122(5), 1–46. doi:10.1177/016146812012200512
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anyon, Y., Jenson, J. M., Altschul, I., Farrar, J., McQueen, J., Greer, E., Downing, B., & Simmons, J. (2014). The persistent effect of race and the promise of alternatives to suspension in school discipline outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 379–386. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.06.025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arkansas Act 1059. (2017). An act to amend provisions of title 6 of the Arkansas code concerning discipline of students in public schools; and for other purposes.
   Google Scholar
• Bacher-Hicks, A., Billings, S. B., & Deming, D. J. (2019). The school to prison pipeline: Long-run impacts of school suspensions on adult crime. NBER Working Paper 26257.
   Google Scholar
• Baier, V. E., March, J. G., & Saetren, H. (1986). Implementation and ambiguity. Scandinavian Journal of Management Studies, 2(3–4), 197–212. doi:10.1016/0281-7527(86)90016-2
   Google Scholar
• Baker-Smith, E. C. (2018). Suspensions suspended: Do changes to high school suspension policies change suspension rates? Peabody Journal of Education, 93(2), 190–206. doi:10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435043
   Google Scholar
• Balfanz, R., Byrnes, V., & Fox, J. (2014). Sent home and put off-track: The antecedents, disproportionalities, and consequences of being suspended in the ninth grade. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk, 5(2), 1–19.
   Google Scholar
• Barrett, N., McEachin, A., Mills, J. N., & Valant, J. (2021). Disparities and discrimination in student discipline by race and family income. Journal of Human Resources, 56(3), 711–748. doi:10.3368/jhr.56.3.0118-9267R2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beachum, F. D., Dentith, A. M., McCray, C. R., & Boyle, T. M. (2008). Havens of hope or the killing fields: The paradox of leadership, pedagogy, and relationships in an urban middle school. Urban Education, 43(2), 189–215. doi:10.1177/0042085907312329
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. N., & Muschkin, C. G. (2012). The enduring impact of race: Understanding disparities in student disciplinary infractions and achievement. Sociological Perspectives, 55(4), 637–662. doi:10.1525/sop.2012.55.4.637
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Methodological), 57(1), 289–300. doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloom, H. S., & Riccio, J. A. (2005). Using place-based random assignment and comparative interrupted time-series analysis to evaluate the Jobs-Plus employment program for public housing residents. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 599(1), 19–51. doi:10.1177/0002716205274824
   Google Scholar
• Caputo, I. (2017, March 22). Bid to eliminate corporal punishment in schools fails. Arkansas Times. https://arktimes.com/news/arkansas-reporter/2017/03/22/bid-to-eliminate-corporal-punishment-in-schools-fails-2
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter, D. M., & Ramirez, A. (2007). More than one gap: Dropout rate gaps between and among Black, Hispanic, and White students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 19(1), 32–64. doi:10.4219/jaa-2007-705
   Google Scholar
• Carter Andrews, D. J., Brown, T., Castro, E., & Id-Deen, E. (2019). The impossibility of being “perfect and white”: Black girls’ racialized and gendered schooling experiences. American Educational Research Journal, 56(6), 2531–2572. doi:10.3102/0002831219849392
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu, E. M., & Ready, D. D. (2018). Exclusion and urban public high schools: Short-and long-term consequences of school Suspensions. American Journal of Education, 124(4), 479–509. doi:10.1086/698454
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobb-Clark, D. A., Kassenboehmer, S. C., Le, T., McVicar, D., & Zhang, R. (2015). Is there an educational penalty for being suspended from school? Education Economics, 23(4), 376–395. doi:10.1080/09645292.2014.980398
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, D. K., Moffitt, S. L., & Goldin, S. (2007). Policy and practice: The dilemma. American Journal of Education, 113(4), 515–548. doi:10.1086/518487
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craigie, T. A. (2022). Do school suspension reforms work? Evidence from Rhode Island. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 44(4), 667–688. doi:10.3102/01623737221090264
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. (1997). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. In Feminist legal theories (pp. 23–51). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• CT Gen. Stat § 10-233c. (2012). https://law.justia.com/codes/connecticut/2012/title-10/chapter-170/section-10-233c/
   Google Scholar
• Dancy, T. E. (2014). (Un) Doing hegemony in education: Disrupting school-to-prison pipelines for Black males. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(4), 476–493. doi:10.1080/10665684.2014.959271
   Google Scholar
• Dee, T. S., & Jacob, B. (2011). The impact of No Child Left Behind on student achievement. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 30(3), 418–446. doi:10.1002/pam.20586
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eden, M. (2017). School discipline reform and disorder: Evidence from New York City public schools, 2012–16. The Education Digest, 83(1), 22.
   Google Scholar
• Education Commission of the States. (2021, May). 50-state comparison. https://reports.ecs.org/comparisons/school-discipline-policies-04
   Google Scholar
• Eitle, T. M., & Eitle, D. J. (2004). Inequality, segregation, and the overrepresentation of African Americans in school suspensions. Sociological Perspectives, 47(3), 269–287. doi:10.1525/sop.2004.47.3.269
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabelo, T., Thompson, M. D., Plotkin, M., Carmichael, D., Marchbanks, M. P., & Booth, E. A. (2011). Breaking schools’ rules: A statewide study of how school discipline relates to students’ success and juvenile justice involvement. The Council of State Governments Justice Center & Public Policy Research Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Fergus, E. (2018). The role of policy in promoting efficient and quality discipline reform. School Psychology Review, 47(2), 199–202. doi:10.17105/SPR-2018-0019.V47-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson, A. A. (2020). Bad boys: Public schools in the making of black masculinity. University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar
• Firestone, W. A. (1989). Using reform: Conceptualizing district initiative. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(2), 151–164. doi:10.3102/01623737011002151
   Google Scholar
• Forsyth, C. J., Biggar, R. W., Forsyth, Y. A., & Howat, H. (2015). The punishment gap: Racial/ethnic comparisons in school infractions by objective and subjective definitions. Deviant Behavior, 36(4), 276–287. doi:10.1080/01639625.2014.935623
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilliam, W. S., & Shahar, G. (2006). Preschool and child care expulsion and suspension: Rates and predictors in one state. Infants & Young Children, 19(3), 228–245. doi:10.1097/00001163-200607000-00007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goff, P. A., Jackson, M. C., Di Leone, B. A. L., Culotta, C. M., & DiTomasso, N. A. (2014). The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing Black children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 526–545. doi:10.1037/a0035663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C., Payne, A. A., & Gottfredson, N. C. (2005). School climate predictors of school disorder: Results from a national study of delinquency prevention in schools. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42(4), 412–444. doi:10.1177/0022427804271931
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Mediratta, K. (2017). Eliminating disparities in school discipline: A framework for intervention. Review of Research in Education, 47, 253–278.
   Google Scholar
• Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 59–68. doi:10.3102/0013189X09357621
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory, A., & Thompson, A. R. (2010). African American high school students and variability in behavior across classrooms. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3), 386–402. doi:10.1002/jcop.20370
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haight, W., Kayama, M., & Gibson, P. A. (2016). Out-of-school suspensions of Black youths: Culture, ability, disability, gender, and perspective. Social Work, 61(3), 235–243. doi:10.1093/sw/sww021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hashim, A. K., Strunk, K. O., & Dhaliwal, T. K. (2018). Justice for all? Suspension bans and restorative justice programs in the Los Angeles Unified School District. Peabody Journal of Education, 93(2), 174–189. doi:10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435040
   Google Scholar
• Hinze-Pifer, R., & Sartain, L. (2018). Rethinking universal suspension for severe student behavior. Peabody Journal of Education, 93(2), 228–243. doi:10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435051
   Google Scholar
• Jacobsen, W. C., Pace, G. T., & Ramirez, N. G. (2019). Punishment and inequality at an early age: Exclusionary discipline in elementary school. Social Forces; A Scientific Medium of Social Study and Interpretation, 97(3), 973–998. doi:10.1093/sf/soy072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan, J. L., & Anil, B. (2009). Race, gender, school discipline, and human capital effects. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 41(2), 419–429. doi:10.1017/S1074070800002893
   Google Scholar
• Khalifa, M. A., Gooden, M. A., & Davis, J. E. (2016). Culturally responsive school leadership: A synthesis of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 1272–1311. doi:10.3102/0034654316630383
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacoe, J., & Steinberg, M. P. (2018). Rolling back zero tolerance: The effect of discipline policy reform on suspension usage and student outcomes. Peabody Journal of Education, 93(2), 207–227. doi:10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435047
   Google Scholar
• Lee, A., & Gage, N. A. (2020). Updating and expanding systematic reviews and meta‐analyses on the effects of school‐wide positive behavior interventions and supports. Psychology in the Schools, 57(5), 783–804. doi:10.1002/pits.22336
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leone, P. E., Mayer, M. J., Malmgren, K., & Meisel, S. M. (2000). School violence and disruption: Rhetoric, reality, and reasonable balance. Focus on Exceptional Children, 33(1), 1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, A. E., & Diamond, J. B. (2015). Despite the best intentions: How racial inequality thrives in good schools. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• LiCalsi, C., Osher, D., & Bailey, P. (2021). An empirical examination of the effects of suspension and suspension severity on behavioral and academic outcomes. American Institutes for Research. https://www.cmhnetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/NYC-Suspension-Effects-Behavioral-Academic-Outcomes-August-2021.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Lodi, E., Perrella, L., Lepri, G. L., Scarpa, M. L., & Patrizi, P. (2021). Use of restorative justice and restorative practices at school: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 96. doi:10.3390/ijerph19010096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Losen, D., & Gillespie, J. (2012). Opportunities suspended: The disparate impact of disciplinary exclusion from school. Civil Rights Project, UCLA. https://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/federal-reports/upcoming-ccrr-research
   Google Scholar
• Losen, D., Hodson, C., Keith, M., Morrison, K., & Belway, S. (2015). Are we closing the school discipline gap?. The Civil Rights Project, UCLA.
   Google Scholar
• Losen, D., & Skiba, R. (2010). Suspended education: Urban middle schools in crisis. The Civil Rights Project at UCLA, The Equity Project at the Indiana University Center for Evaluation and Education Policy, and the Southern Poverty Law Center.
   Google Scholar
• Lustick, H. (2017). Making discipline relevant: Toward a theory of culturally responsive positive schoolwide discipline. Race Ethnicity and Education, 20(5), 681–695. doi:10.1080/13613324.2016.1150828
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maryland State Department of Education. (2020). Policy Impact Analysis: HB425/SB651 (2017). Maryland State Department of Education Office of Research and Strategic Data Use. https://www.marylandpublicschools.org/stateboard/Documents/2020/0623/Prek2SuspensionPolicyReport062320.pdf
   Google Scholar
• McLaughlin, M. W. (1987). Learning from experience: Lessons from policy implementation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 171–178. doi:10.3102/01623737009002171
   Google Scholar
• Md. Code Ann., Educ. § 7-305.1. (2017). https://law.justia.com/codes/maryland/2017/education/division-ii/title-7/subtitle-3/section-7-305.1/
   Google Scholar
• Monahan, K. C., VanDerhei, S., Bechtold, J., & Cauffman, E. (2014). From the school yard to the squad car: School discipline, truancy, and arrest. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(7), 1110–1122. doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0103-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monroe, C. R., & Obidah, J. E. (2004). The influence of cultural synchronization on a teacher’s perceptions of disruption: A case study of an African American middle-school classroom. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(3), 256–268. doi:10.1177/0022487104263977
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, M. A., & Wright, J. P. (2018). Beyond black and white: Suspension disparities for Hispanic, Asian, and white youth. Criminal Justice Review, 43(4), 377–398. doi:10.1177/0734016817721293
   Google Scholar
• Morris, E. W. (2005). “Tuck in that shirt!” Race, class, gender, and discipline in an urban school. Sociological Perspectives, 48(1), 25–48. doi:10.1525/sop.2005.48.1.25
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, E. W., & Perry, B. L. (2017). Girls behaving badly? Race, gender, and subjective evaluation in the discipline of African American girls. Sociology of Education, 90(2), 127–148. doi:10.1177/0038040717694876
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mowen, T., & Brent, J. (2016). School discipline as a turning point: The cumulative effect of suspension on arrest. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53(5), 628–653. doi:10.1177/0022427816643135
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson-Crotty, S., Birchmeier, Z., & Valentine, D. (2009). Exploring the impact of school discipline on racial disproportion in the juvenile justice system. Social Science Quarterly, 90(4), 1003–1018. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00674.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NJ Rev Stat § 18A:37-2A. (2016). https://law.justia.com/codes/new-jersey/2016/title-18a/section-18a-37-2a/
   Google Scholar
• Noguera, P. A. (2009). The trouble with black boys… And other reflections on race, equity, and the future of public education. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Noltemeyer, A., & Mcloughlin, C. S. (2010). Patterns of exclusionary discipline by school typology, ethnicity, and their interaction. Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban Education, 7(1), 27–40.
   Google Scholar
• Noordzij, M., van Diepen, M., Caskey, F. C., & Jager, K. J. (2017). Relative risk versus absolute risk: One cannot be interpreted without the other. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 32(suppl_2), ii13–ii18. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfw465
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Paternoster, R., Bachman, R., Brame, R., & Sherman, L. W. (1997). Do fair procedures matter-the effect of procedural justice on spouse assault. Law & Society Review, 31(1), 163. doi:10.2307/3054098
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peguero, A. A., & Shekarkhar, Z. (2011). Latino/a student misbehavior and school punishment. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 33(1), 54–70. doi:10.1177/0739986310388021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petras, H., Masyn, K. E., Buckley, J. A., Ialongo, N. S., & Kellam, S. (2011). Who is most at risk for school removal? A multilevel discrete-time survival analysis of individual-and context-level influences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 223–237. doi:10.1037/a0021545
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F. T., Blevins, K. R., Daigle, L. E., & Madensen, T. D. (2017). The empirical status of deterrence theory: A meta-analysis. In Taking stock (pp. 367–395). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rafa, A. (2018a). 50-State comparison: State policies on school discipline. Education Comission of the States. https://www.ecs.org/50-state-comparison-state-policies-on-school-discipline/
   Google Scholar
• Rafa, A. (2018b). Policy snapshot: Suspension and expulsion. Education Comission of the States. https://www.ecs.org/wp-content/uploads/Suspension_and_Expulsion.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Raffaele Mendez, L. M. (2003). Predictors of suspension and negative school outcomes: A longitudinal investigation. New Directions for Youth Development, 99, 17–33.
   Google Scholar
• Ritter, G. W. (2018). Reviewing the progress of school discipline reform. Peabody Journal of Education, 93(2), 133–138. doi:10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435034
   Google Scholar
• Ritter, G. W., & Anderson, K. P. (2018). Examining disparities in student discipline: Mapping inequities from infractions to consequences. Peabody Journal of Education, 93(2), 161–173. doi:10.1080/0161956X.2018.1435038
   Google Scholar
• Rodriguez, L. A., & Welsh, R. O. (2022). The dimensions of school discipline: Toward a comprehensive framework for measuring discipline patterns and outcomes in schools. AERA Open, 8(1), 233285842210836–233285842210823. doi:10.1177/23328584221083669
   Google Scholar
• Sabatier, P., & Mazmanian, D. (1979). The conditions of effective implementation: A guide to accomplishing policy objectives. Policy Analysis, 5(4), 481–504.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schulz, K. F., Altman, D. G., & Moher, D., CONSORT Group. (2010). CONSORT 2010 statement: Updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. BMC Medicine, 8(1), 18. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-8-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shores, K., Kim, H. E., & Still, M. (2020). Categorical inequality in Black and White: Linking disproportionality across multiple educational outcomes. American Educational Research Journal, 57(5), 2089–2131. doi:10.3102/0002831219900128
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skiba, R. J. (2015). Interventions to address racial/ethnic disparities in school discipline: Can systems reform be race-neutral?. In Race and social problems (pp. 107–124). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Skiba, R. J., Chung, C., Trachok, M., Baker, T., Sheya, A., & Hughes, R. (2014). Parsing disciplinary disproportionality: Contributions of infraction, student, and school characteristics to out-of-school suspension and expulsion. American Educational Research Journal, 51(4), 640–670. doi:10.3102/0002831214541670
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skiba, R., Horner, R., Chung, C. G., Rausch, M. K., May, S., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of Black and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1), 85–107. doi:10.1080/02796015.2011.12087730
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skiba, R., Michael, R., Nardo, A., & Peterson, R. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342. doi:10.1023/A:1021320817372
   Google Scholar
• Skiba, R. J., & Williams, N. T. (2014). Are Black kids worse? Myths and facts about racial differences in behavior. The Equity Project at Indiana University, 1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Somers, M., Zhu, P., Jacob, R., Bloom, H. (2013, September). The validity and precision of the comparative interrupted time series design and the difference-indifference design in educational evaluation. MDRC Working Paper. https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/validity_precision_comparative_interrupted_time_series_design.pdf
   Google Scholar
• St. Clair, T., Hallberg, K., & Cook, T. D. (2016). The validity and precision of the comparative interrupted time-series design: Three within-study comparisons. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 41(3), 269–299. doi:10.3102/1076998616636854
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Steinberg, M. P., & Lacoe, J. (2018). Reforming school discipline: School-level policy implementation and the consequences for suspended students and their peers. American Journal of Education, 125(1), 29–77. doi:10.1086/699811
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strunk, K. O., Marsh, J. A., Hashim, A. K., & Bush-Mecenas, S. (2016a). Innovation and a return to the status quo: A mixed-methods study of school reconstitution. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(3), 549–577. doi:10.3102/0162373716642517
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strunk, K. O., Marsh, J. A., Hashim, A. K., Bush-Mecenas, S., & Weinstein, T. (2016b). The impact of turnaround reform on student outcomes: Evidence and insights from the Los Angeles Unified School District. Education Finance and Policy, 11(3), 251–282. doi:10.1162/EDFP_a_00188
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suh, S., & Suh, J. (2007). Rick factors and levels of risk for high school dropouts. Professional School Counseling, 10(3), 297–306. doi:10.5330/prsc.10.3.w26024vvw6541gv7
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan, A. L., Klingbeil, D. A., & Van Norman, E. R. (2013). Beyond behavior: Multilevel analysis of the influence of sociodemographics and school characteristics on students’ risk of suspension. School Psychology Review, 42(1), 99–114. doi:10.1080/02796015.2013.12087493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, E., H., Erickson, H., & Ritter, G. W. (2021). Examining the impacts of middle school disciplinary policies on ninth-grade retention. Educational Policy, 35(6), 1014–1041. doi:10.1177/0895904819843600
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Texas Education Code § 37.005. (2019). Suspension. https://law.justia.com/codes/texas/2019/education-code/title-2/subtitle-g/chapter-37/subchapter-a/section-37-005/
   Google Scholar
• Tyler, T. R. (2006). Why people obey the law. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Education. (2021, March 31). California compilation of school discipline laws and regulations. https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/sites/default/files/discipline-compendium/California%20School%20Discipline%20Laws%20and%20Regulations.pdf
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights. (2021, June). Data snapshot: School discipline. An overview of exclusionary discipline practices in public schools for the 2017–18 school year. https://ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/crdc-exclusionary-school-discipline.pdf
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice and U.S. Department of Education. (2014, January 8). Joint “Dear colleague” letter. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201401-title-vi.html
   Google Scholar
• Vavrus, F., & Cole, K. (2002). “I didn’t do nothin’”: The discursive construction of school suspension. The Urban Review, 34(2), 87–111. doi:10.1023/A:1015375215801
   Google Scholar
• Vincent, C. G., Randall, C., Cartledge, G., Tobin, T. J., & Swain-Bradway, J. (2011). Toward a conceptual integration of cultural responsiveness and schoolwide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13(4), 219–229. doi:10.1177/1098300711399765
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent, C. G., Sprague, J. R., & Gau, J. (2015). The effectiveness of school-wide positive behavior support for reducing racially inequitable disciplinary exclusions in middle schools. In D. J. Losen (Ed.), Closing the school discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion. Teachers College Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vincent, C. G., Sprague, J. R., & Tobin, T. J. (2012). Exclusionary discipline practices across students’ racial/ethnic backgrounds and disability status: Findings from the Pacific Northwest. Education and Treatment of Children, 35(4), 585–601. doi:10.1353/etc.2012.0025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent, C. G., & Tobin, T. J. (2011). An examination of the relationship between implementation of School-wide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) and exclusion of students from various ethnic backgrounds with and without disabilities. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 19(4), 217–232. doi:10.1177/1063426610377329
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace, J. M., Jr., Goodkind, S., Wallace, C. M., & Bachman, J. G. (2008). Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in school discipline among US high school students: 1991–2005. The Negro Educational Review, 59(1–2), 47–62.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Way, S. M. (2011). School discipline and disruptive classroom behavior: The moderating effects of student perceptions. The Sociological Quarterly, 52(3), 346–375. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2011.01210.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weatherley, R., & Lipsky, M. (1977). Street-level bureaucrats and institutional innovation: Implementing special-education reform. Harvard Educational Review, 47(2), 171–197. doi:10.17763/haer.47.2.v870r1v16786270x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh, R. O. (2022). Schooling levels and school discipline: Examining the variation in disciplinary infractions and consequences across elementary, middle, and high schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 27(3), 270–295.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh, R. O., & Little, S. (2018). The school discipline dilemma: A comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational Research, 88(5), 752–794. doi:10.3102/0034654318791582
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsh, W. N. (2001). Effects of student and school factors on five measures of school disorder. Justice Quarterly, 18(4), 911–947. doi:10.1080/07418820100095131
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf, K. C., & Kupchik, A. (2017). School suspensions and adverse experiences in adulthood. Justice Quarterly, 34(3), 407–430. doi:10.1080/07418825.2016.1168475
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, M., Cook, T. D., & Steiner, P. M. (2011). No Child Left Behind: An interim evaluation of its effects on learning using two interrupted time series each with its own non-equivalent comparison series. Working Paper WP-09-11. Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University. http://www.ipr.northwestern.edu/publications/docs/workingpapers/2009/IPR-WP-09-11.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Wu, S. C., Pink, W., Crain, R., & Moles, O. (1982). Student suspension: A critical reappraisal. The Urban Review, 14(4), 245–303. doi:10.1007/BF02171974
   Google Scholar
• Zakszeski, B., & Rutherford, L. (2021). Mind the gap: A systematic review of research on restorative practices in schools. School Psychology Review, 50(2–3), 371–387. doi:10.1080/2372966X.2020.1852056
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, D., Katsiyannis, A., & Herbst, M. (2004). Disciplinary exclusions in special education: A 4-year analysis. Behavioral Disorders, 29(4), 337–347. doi:10.1177/019874290402900402
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar