References
- Abdul-Quader, A. S., Feelemyer, J., Modi, S., Stein, E. S., Briceno, A., Semaan, S., Horvath, T., Kennedy, G. E., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (2013). Effectiveness of structural-level needle/syringe programs to reduce HCV and HIV infection among people who inject drugs: A systematic review. AIDS and Behavior, 17(9), 2878–2892. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0593-y
- Abelson, J., Treloar, C., Crawford, J., Kippax, S., van Beek, I., & Howard, J. (2006). Some characteristics of early-onset injection drug users prior to and at the time of their first injection. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 101(4), 548–555. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01379.x
- Allen, S. T., Grieb, S. M., O’Rourke, A., Yoder, R., Planchet, E., White, R. H., & Sherman, S. G. (2019a). Understanding the public health consequences of suspending a rural syringe services program: A qualitative study of the experiences of people who inject drugs. Harm Reduction Journal, 16(1), 33. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-019-0305-7
- Allen, S. T., O’Rourke, A., White, R. H., Schneider, K. E., Kilkenny, M., & Sherman, S. G. (2019b). Estimating the number of people who inject drugs in a rural county in Appalachia. American Journal of Public Health, 109(3), 445–450. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304873
- Allen, S. T., Ruiz, M. S., & Jones, J. (2016). Quantifying syringe exchange program operational space in the District of Columbia. AIDS and Behavior, 20(12), 2933–2940. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-016-1405-y
- Allen, S. T., Ruiz, M. S., & O’Rourke, A. (2015). The evidence does not speak for itself: The role of research evidence in shaping policy change for the implementation of publicly funded syringe exchange programs in three US cities. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 26(7), 688–695. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2015.04.008
- Allen, S. T., White, R. H., O’Rourke, A., Ahmad, N. J., Hazelett, T., Kilkenny, M. E., & Sherman, S. G. (2020). Correlates of transactional sex among a rural population of people who inject drugs. AIDS and Behavior, 24(3), 775–781. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02612-7
- Atkins, A., McClung, R. P., Kilkenny, M., Bernstein, K., Willenburg, K., Edwards, A., Lyss, S., Thomasson, E., Panneer, N., Kirk, N., Watson, M., Adkins, E., DiNenno, E., Hogan, V., Neblett Fanfair, R., Napier, K., Ridpath, A. D., Perdue, M., Chen, M., … Oster, A. M. (2020). Notes from the field: Outbreak of human immunodeficiency virus infection among persons who inject drugs – Cabell county, West Virginia, 2018–2019. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(16), 499–500. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6916a2
- Bartholomew, T. S., Tookes, H. E., Bullock, C., Onugha, J., Forrest, D. W., & Feaster, D. J. (2020). Examining risk behavior and syringe coverage among people who inject drugs accessing a syringe services program: A latent class analysis. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 78, 102716. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102716
- Beletsky, L., Cochrane, J., Sawyer, A. L., Serio-Chapman, C., Smelyanskaya, M., Han, J., Robinowitz, N., & Sherman, S. G. (2015). Police encounters among needle exchange clients in Baltimore: Drug law enforcement as a structural determinant of health. American Journal of Public Health, 105(9), 1872–1879. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302681
- Bixler, D., Corby-Lee, G., Proescholdbell, S., Ramirez, T., Kilkenny, M. E., LaRocco, M., Childs, R., Brumage, M. R., Settle, A. D., Teshale, E. H., & Asher, A. (2018). Access to syringe services programs – Kentucky, North Carolina, and West Virginia, 2013–2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67(18), 529–532. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6718a5
- Bornstein, K., Coye, A., St. Onge, J., Li, H., Muller, A., Bartholomew, T., & Tookes, H. (2020). Hospital admissions among people who inject opioids following syringe services program implementation. Harm Reduction Journal, 17(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-020-00376-1
- Bradley, H., Hogan, V., Agnew-Brune, C., Armstrong, J., Broussard, D., Buchacz, K., Burton, K., Cope, S., Dawson, E., De La Garza, G., Gerard, A., Granado, M., Gupta, R., Haddy, L., Hoffman, W., Johnson, S. D., Kirk, N., Lee, C., Lyss, S., … Hoots, B. E. (2019). Increased HIV diagnoses in West Virginia counties highly vulnerable to rapid HIV dissemination through injection drug use: a cautionary tale. Annals of Epidemiology, 34, 12–17. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2019.02.012
- Canary, L., Hariri, S., Campbell, C., Young, R., Whitcomb, J., Kaufman, H., & Vellozzi, C. (2017). Geographic disparities in access to syringe services programs among young persons with hepatitis C virus infection in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 65(3), 514–517. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix333
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2017). Diagnoses of HIV infection in the United States and dependent areas, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/library/reports/surveillance/cdc-hiv-surveillance-report-2017-vol-29.pdf
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2019, May 5). Syringe services programs (SSPs). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 9 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/ssp/index.html
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2021). 2019 Drug overdose death rates. https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/statedeaths/drug-overdose-death-2019.html
- Collins, A. B., Boyd, J., Mayer, S., Fowler, A., Kennedy, M. C., Bluthenthal, R. N., Kerr, T., & McNeil, R. (2019). Policing space in the overdose crisis: A rapid ethnographic study of the impact of law enforcement practices on the effectiveness of overdose prevention sites. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 73, 199–207. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.08.002
- Conrad, C., Bradley, H. M., Broz, D., Buddha, S., Chapman, E. L., Galang, R. R., Hillman, D., Hon, J., Hoover, K. W., Patel, M. R., Perez, A., Peters, P. J., Pontones, P., Roseberry, J. C., Sandoval, M., Shields, J., Walthall, J., Waterhouse, D., Weidle, P. J., Wu, H., & Duwve, J. M. (2015). Community outbreak of HIV Infection linked to injection drug use of oxymorphone–Indiana, 2015. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 64(16), 443–444.
- Cooper, H., Moore, L., Gruskin, S., & Krieger, N. (2005). The impact of a police drug crackdown on drug injectors’ ability to practice harm reduction: A qualitative study. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 61(3), 673–684. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.12.030
- de Montigny, L., Vernez Moudon, A., Leigh, B., Kim, S. Y., & Young, K. (2010). Assessing a drop box programme: A spatial analysis of discarded needles. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 21(3), 208–214. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.07.003
- Degenhardt, L., Charlson, F., Stanaway, J., Larney, S., Alexander, L. T., Hickman, M., Cowie, B., Hall, W. D., Strang, J., Whiteford, H., & Vos, T. (2016). Estimating the burden of disease attributable to injecting drug use as a risk factor for HIV, hepatitis C, and hepatitis B: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases, 16(12), 1385–1398. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30325-5
- Des Jarlais, D. C., Friedman, S. R., & Stoneburner, R. L. (1988). HIV infection and intravenous drug use: Critical issues in transmission dynamics, infection outcomes, and prevention. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 10(1), 151–158. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/clinids/10.1.151
- Des Jarlais, D. C., Marmor, M., Paone, D., Titus, S., Shi, Q., Perlis, T., Jose, B., & Friedman, S. R. (1996). HIV incidence among injecting drug users in New York City syringe-exchange programmes. Lancet (London, England), 348(9033), 987–991. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)02536-6
- Des Jarlais, D. C., Nugent, A., Solberg, A., Feelemyer, J., Mermin, J., & Holtzman, D. (2015). Syringe service programs for persons who inject drugs in Urban, Suburban, and Rural Areas – United States, 2013. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 64(48), 1337–1341. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6448a3
- Des Jarlais, D., Khue, P. M., Feelemyer, J., Arasteh, K., Thi Huong, D., Thi Hai Oanh, K., Thi Giang, H., Thi Tuyet Thanh, N., Vinh, V. H., Heckathorn, D. D., Moles, J. P., Vallo, R., Quillet, C., Rapoud, D., Michel, L., Laureillard, D., Hammett, T., & Nagot, N. (2018). Using dual capture/recapture studies to estimate the population size of persons who inject drugs (PWID) in the city of Hai Phong, Vietnam. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 185, 106–111. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.11.033
- Doherty, M. C., Junge, B., Rathouz, P., Garfein, R. S., Riley, E., & Vlahov, D. (2000). The effect of a needle exchange program on numbers of discarded needles: A 2-year follow-up. American Journal of Public Health, 90(6), 936–939. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.90.6.936
- Fernandes, R. M., Cary, M., Duarte, G., Jesus, G., Alarcão, J., Torre, C., Costa, S., Costa, J., & Carneiro, A. V. (2017). Effectiveness of needle and syringe Programmes in people who inject drugs – An overview of systematic reviews. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 309https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4210-2
- Furukawa, N. W., Weimer, M., Willenburg, K. S., Kilkenny, M. E., Atkins, A. D., Paul McClung, R., Hansen, Z., Napier, K., Handanagic, S., & Carnes, N. A. (2021). Expansion of preexposure prophylaxis capacity in response to an HIV outbreak among people who inject drugs—Cabell County, West Virginia, 2019. Public Health Reports., 0033354921994202.
- Galea, S., Ahern, J., Fuller, C., Freudenberg, N., & Vlahov, D. (2001). Needle exchange programs and experience of violence in an inner city neighborhood. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 28(3), 282–288. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/00042560-200111010-00014
- Gindi, R. M., Rucker, M. G., Serio-Chapman, C. E., & Sherman, S. G. (2009). Utilization patterns and correlates of retention among clients of the needle exchange program in Baltimore, Maryland. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 103(3), 93–98. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.12.018
- Hagan, H., McGough, J. P., Thiede, H., Hopkins, S., Duchin, J., & Alexander, E. R. (2000). Reduced injection frequency and increased entry and retention in drug treatment associated with needle-exchange participation in Seattle drug injectors. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 19(3), 247–252. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0740-5472(00)00104-5
- Hay, G., & McKeganey, N. (2001). The attendance pattern of clients at a Scottish needle exchange. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 96(2), 259–266. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.9622599.x
- Hedegaard, H., & Spencer, M. R. (2021). Urban–rural differences in drug overdose death rates, 1999–2019. NCHS Data Brief, 403, 1–8.
- Hunter, K., Park, J. N., Allen, S. T., Chaulk, P., Frost, T., Weir, B. W., & Sherman, S. G. (2018). Safe and unsafe spaces: Non-fatal overdose, arrest, and receptive syringe sharing among people who inject drugs in public and semi-public spaces in Baltimore City. International Journal on Drug Policy, 57, 25–31. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.03.026
- Keyes, K. M., Cerda, M., Brady, J. E., Havens, J. R., & Galea, S. (2014). Understanding the rural-urban differences in nonmedical prescription opioid use and abuse in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 104(2), e52–e59. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301709
- Khoshnood, K., Kaplan, E. H., & Heimer, R. (1995). Dropouts’ or ‘drop-ins’? Client retention and participation in New Haven’s needle exchange program. Public Health Reports, 110(4), 462–466.
- Lansky, A., Finlayson, T., Johnson, C., Holtzman, D., Wejnert, C., Mitsch, A., Gust, D., Chen, R., Mizuno, Y., & Crepaz, N. (2014). Estimating the number of persons who inject drugs in the united states by meta-analysis to calculate national rates of HIV and hepatitis C virus infections. PLoS One, 9(5), e97596. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097596
- Marx, M. A., Crape, B., Brookmeyer, R. S., Junge, B., Latkin, C., Vlahov, D., & Strathdee, S. A. (2000). Trends in crime and the introduction of a needle exchange program. American Journal of Public Health, 90(12), 1933–1936. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.90.12.1933
- Mazhnaya, A., O’Rourke, A., White, R. H., Park, J. N., Kilkenny, M. E., Sherman, S. G., & Allen, S. T. (2020). Fentanyl preference among people who inject drugs in West Virginia. Substance Use & Misuse, 55(11), 1774–1780. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1762653
- McCoy, C. B., Lai, S., Metsch, L. R., Messiah, S. E., & Zhao, W. (2004). Injection drug use and crack cocaine smoking: Independent and dual risk behaviors for HIV infection. Annals of Epidemiology, 14(8), 535–542. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2003.10.001
- Monnat, S. M., & Rigg, K. K. (2016). Examining rural/urban differences in prescription opioid misuse among US adolescents. The Journal of Rural Health: Official Journal of the American Rural Health Association and the National Rural Health Care Association, 32(2), 204–218. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12141
- Monnat, S. M., & Rigg, K. K. (2018). The opioid crisis in rural and small town America.
- Moody, L., Satterwhite, E., & Bickel, W. K. (2017). Substance use in rural central Appalachia: Current status and treatment considerations. Rural Mental Health, 41(2), 123–135. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/rmh0000064
- NASEN. (2020). SEP locations. North American Syringe Exchange Network. Retrieved September 9 2020, from https://www.nasen.org/map/
- Neaigus, A., Reilly, K. H., Jenness, S. M., Hagan, H., Wendel, T., & Gelpi-Acosta, C. (2013). Dual HIV risk: Receptive syringe sharing and unprotected sex among HIV-negative injection drug users in New York City. AIDS and Behavior, 17(7), 2501–2509. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-013-0496-y
- Oster, A. M., Sternberg, M., Lansky, A., Broz, D., Wejnert, C., & Paz-Bailey, G. (2015). Population size estimates for men who have sex with men and persons who inject drugs. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 92(4), 733–743. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-9970-3
- Peters, D. J., Monnat, S. M., Hochstetler, A. L., & Berg, M. T. (2020). The opioid hydra: Understanding overdose mortality epidemics and syndemics across the rural-urban continuum. Rural Sociology, 85(3), 589–622. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12307
- Petersen, M. R., & Deddens, J. A. (2008). A comparison of two methods for estimating prevalence ratios. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 8, 9. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-8-9
- Platt, L., Minozzi, S., Reed, J., Vickerman, P., Hagan, H., French, C., Jordan, A., Degenhardt, L., Hope, V., Hutchinson, S., Maher, L., Palmateer, N., Taylor, A., Bruneau, J., & Hickman, M. (2017). Needle syringe programmes and opioid substitution therapy for preventing hepatitis C transmission in people who inject drugs. Cochrane Database System Review, 9(9), CD012021https://doi.org/https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012021.pub2
- Rigg, K. K., & Monnat, S. M. (2015). Urban vs. rural differences in prescription opioid misuse among adults in the United States: Informing region specific drug policies and interventions. International Journal of Drug Policy, 26(5), 484–491. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.10.001
- Rigg, K. K., Monnat, S. M., & Chavez, M. N. (2018). Opioid-related mortality in rural America: Geographic heterogeneity and intervention strategies. International Journal of Drug Policy, 57, 119–129. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.04.011
- Rosenblum, A., Cleland, C. M., Fong, C., Kayman, D. J., Tempalski, B., & Parrino, M. (2011). Distance traveled and cross-state commuting to opioid treatment programs in the United States. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2011, 1–10. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/948789
- Rudd, R. A., Seth, P., David, F., & Scholl, L. (2016). Increases in drug and opioid-involved overdose deaths – United States, 2010–2015. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 65(50–51), 1445–1452. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm655051e1
- Ruiz, M. S., O’Rourke, A., & Allen, S. T. (2016a). Impact evaluation of a policy intervention for HIV prevention in Washington, DC. AIDS and Behavior, 20(1), 22–28. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-015-1143-6
- Ruiz, M. S., O’Rourke, A., & Allen, S. T. (2016b). Using capture-recapture methods to estimate the population of people who inject drugs in Washington, DC. AIDS and Behavior, 20(2), 363–368. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-015-1085-z
- Ruiz, M. S., OʼRourke, A., Allen, S. T., Holtgrave, D. R., Metzger, D., Benitez, J., Brady, K. A., Chaulk, C. P., & Wen, L. S. (2019). Using interrupted time series analysis to measure the impact of legalized syringe exchange on HIV diagnoses in Baltimore and Philadelphia. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes (1999), 82(Suppl. 2), S148–S154. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000002176
- Sherman, S. G., & Purchase, D. (2001). Point defiance: A case study of the United States’ first public needle exchange in Tacoma, Washington. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 12(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0955-3959(00)00074-8
- Sigmon, S. C. (2014). Access to treatment for opioid dependence in rural America: Challenges and future directions. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(4), 359–360. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4450
- Smith, D. M., Werb, D., Abramovitz, D., Magis-Rodriguez, C., Vera, A., Patterson, T. L., & Strathdee, S. A, for Proyecto El Cuete. (2016). Predictors of needle exchange program utilization during its implementation and expansion in Tijuana, Mexico. The American Journal on Addictions, 25(2), 118–124. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.12326
- Tookes, H., Bartholomew, T. S., Geary, S., Matthias, J., Poschman, K., Blackmore, C., Philip, C., Suarez, E., Forrest, D. W., Rodriguez, A. E., Kolber, M. A., Knaul, F., Colucci, L., & Spencer, E. (2020). Rapid identification and investigation of an HIV risk network among people who inject Drugs-Miami, FL, 2018. AIDS and Behavior, 24(1), 246–256. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02680-9
- Unick, G. J., Rosenblum, D., Mars, S., & Ciccarone, D. (2013). Intertwined epidemics: National demographic trends in hospitalizations for heroin- and opioid-related overdoses, 1993–2009. PLoS One, 8(2), e54496. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054496
- US Census Bureau (2012). 2010 Census Urban and Rural Classification and Urban Area Criteria. Census Bureau.
- Valdiserri, R., Khalsa, J., Dan, C., Holmberg, S., Zibbell, J., Holtzman, D., Lubran, R., & Compton, W. (2014). Confronting the emerging epidemic of HCV infection among young injection drug users. American Journal of Public Health, 104(5), 816–821. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301812
- Valente, T. W., Foreman, R. K., Junge, B., & Vlahov, D. (1998). Satellite exchange in the Baltimore Needle Exchange Program. Public Health Reports, 113(Suppl. 1), 90–96.
- van Ameijden, E. J., van den Hoek, J. A., van Haastrecht, H. J., & Coutinho, R. A. (1992). The harm reduction approach and risk factors for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seroconversion in injecting drug users, Amsterdam. American Journal of Epidemiology, 136(2), 236–243. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116489
- Van Handel, M. M., Rose, C. E., Hallisey, E. J., Kolling, J. L., Zibbell, J. E., Lewis, B., Bohm, M. K., Jones, C. M., Flanagan, B. E., Siddiqi, A. E., Iqbal, K., Dent, A. L., Mermin, J. H., McCray, E., Ward, J. W., & Brooks, J. T. (2016). County-level vulnerability assessment for rapid dissemination of HIV or HCV infections among persons who inject drugs, United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes (1999), 73(3), 323–331. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000001098
- Weiss, A. J., Elixhauser, A., Barrett, M. L., Steiner, C. A., Bailey, M. K., & O’Malley, L. (2017). Opioid-related inpatient stays and emergency department visits by state, 2009–2014: Statistical brief# 219.
- White, R. H., O’Rourke, A., Bluthenthal, R. N., Kral, A. H., Kilkenny, M. E., Hazelett, T. D., Sherman, S. G., & Allen, S. T. (2020). Initiating persons into injection drug use in rural West Virginia, USA. Substance Use & Misuse, 55(2), 337–344. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2019.1669660
- Young, L. B., Grant, K. M., & Tyler, K. A. (2015). Community-level barriers to recovery for substance-dependent rural residents. Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 15(3), 307–326. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/1533256X.2015.1056058
- Zibbell, J. E., Iqbal, K., Patel, R. C., Suryaprasad, A., Sanders, K. J., Moore-Moravian, L., Serrecchia, J., Blankenship, S., Ward, J. W., & Holtzman, D. (2015). Increases in hepatitis C virus infection related to injection drug use among persons aged ≤30 years – Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 64(17), 2006–2012. 453, –458
- Zou, G. (2004). A modified Poisson regression approach to prospective studies with binary data. American Journal of Epidemiology, 159(7), 702–706. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwh090