Fentanyl Contamination as a Risk Priority: the Impact of the Fentanyl Epidemic on Club Drug-Using Behaviours

References

• Adler, P. (1993). Wheeling and dealing. Colombia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Allman, D., Myers, T., Schellenberg, J., Strike, C., Cockerill, R., & Cavalieri, W. (2006). Peer networking for the risk reduction of drug-related harm. International Journal of Drug Policy, 17(6), 402–410.
   Google Scholar
• Allott, K., & Redman, J. (2006). Patterns of use and harm reduction practices of ecstasy users in Australia. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 82(2), 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.09.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Althoff, K., Leifheit, K., Park, J. N., Chandran, A., & Sherman, S. (2020). Opioid-related overdose mortality in the era of fentanyl: Monitoring a shifting epidemic by person, place, and time. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 216, 1–6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, T. (2009). Understanding the alteration and decline of a music scene: Observations from rave culture. Sociological Forum, 24(2), 307–336.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bardwell, G., Austin, T., Maher, L., & Boyd, J. (2021a). Hoots and harm reduction: A qualitative study identifying gaps in overdose prevention among women who smoke drugs. Harm Reduction Journal, 18(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-021-00479-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bardwell, G., Small, W., Lavalley, J., McNeil, R., & Kerr, T. (2021b). People need them or else they’re going to take fentanyl and die: A qualitative study examining the ‘problem’ of prescription opioid diversion during an overdose epidemic. Social Science & Medicine, 279, 113986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, H. (1973). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bellis, M., Hughes, K., & Lowey, H. (2002). Healthy nightclubs and recreational substance use. From a harm minimisation to a healthy settings approach. Addictive Behaviors, 27(6), 1025–1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4603(02)00271-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger, R. (2015). Now I see it, now I don’t: Researcher’s position and reflexivity in qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 15(2), 219–234.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boeri, M. W., Sterk, C., & Elifson, K. (2004). Rolling beyond raves: Ecstasy use outside the rave setting. Journal of Drug Issues, 34(4), 831–860.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourque, S., Pijl, E., Mason, E., Manning, J., & Motz, T. (2019). Supervised inhalation is an important part of supervised consumption services. Canadian Journal of Public Health = Revue Canadienne de Sante Publique, 110(2), 210–215. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-019-00180-w
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, S., & MacPherson, D. (2018). The harms of drug prohibition: Ongoing resistance in Vancouver’s downtown eastside. BC Studies, 200(2019), 87–96.
   Google Scholar
• Brewis, J. (2014). The ethics of researching friends: On convenience sampling in qualitative management and organization studies. British Journal of Management, 25, 849–862.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, S. (2019, March 4). Fraser Health sends out alert following spate of overdoses in Surrey. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved September 15. https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/fraser-health-sends-out-alert-following-spate-of-overdoses-in-surrey
   Google Scholar
• Carroll, J., Brandon, D. L., Marshall, J., & Green, T. (2017). Exposure to fentanyl-contaminated heroin overdose risk among illicit opioid users in Rhode Island: A mixed methods study. International Journal of Drug Policy, 46, 136–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practice guide through qualitative analysis. Sage Publications Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Cristiano, N. (2014). Living in ecstasy: Applying the normalization thesis to ecstasy use in Canada.” Journal of Substance Use 19(6): 405–409.
   Google Scholar
• Cristiano, N. (2020). Managing risk environments: An ethnographic study of club drug use and harm reduction in the EDM scene [PhD dissertation]. Department of Sociology, York University.
   Google Scholar
• Day, N., Criss, J., Griffiths, B., Gujral, S. K., John-Leader, F., Johnston, J., & Pit, S. (2018). Music festival attendees’ illicit drug use, knowledge and practices regarding drug content and purity: A cross-sectional survey. Harm Reduction Journal, 15(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-017-0205-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, B., Vojtila, L., & Rehm, J. (2018). The ‘fentanyl epidemic’ in Canada – some cautionary observations focusing on opioid-related mortality. Preventive Medicine, 107, 109–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gourley, M. (2004). A subcultural study of recreational ecstasy use. The Australian Sociological Association, 40(1), 59–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grbich, C. (2007). Qualitative data analysis: An introduction. SAGE Publications Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, M., Bagley, S., Maschke, A., Schoenberger, S., Sampath, S., Walley, A., & Gunn, C. (2021). Competing risks of women and men who use fentanyl: ‘the number one thing I worry about would be my safety and number two would be overdose. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 125, 108313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hier, S. (2002). Raves, risks, and the ecstasy panic: A case study in the subversive nature of moral regulation. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 27(1), 33–57.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollett, R., & Gately, N. (2019). Risk intentions following pill test scenarios are predicted by MDMA use history and sensation seeking: A quantitative field study at an Austalian music festival. Drug and Alcohol Review, 38(5), 473–481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt, G., & Evans, K. (2003). Dancing and drugs: A cross-national perspective. Contemporary Drug Problems, 30(4), 779–814.
   Google Scholar
• Hunt, G., Evans, K., & Kares, F. (2007). Drug use and meanings of risk and pleasure. Journal of Youth Studies, 10(1), 73–96.
   Google Scholar
• Hutson, S. (1999). Technoshamanism: Spiritual healing in the rave subculture. Popular Music and Society, 23(3), 53–77.
   Google Scholar
• Irwin, K. (2006). Into the dark heart of ethnography: The lived ethics and inequality of intimate field relationships. Qualitative Sociology, 29(2), 155–175.
   Google Scholar
• Kavanaugh, P., & Anderson, T. (2008). Solidarity and drug use in the electronic dance music scene. The Sociological Quarterly, 49(1), 181–208.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, B. (2005). Conceptions of risk in the lives of club drug-using youth. Substance Use & Misuse, 40(9-10), 1443–1459. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-200066812
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, B. (2007). Club drug use and risk management among ‘bridge and tunnel’ youth. Journal of Drug Issues, 37(2), 425–444.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malbon, B. (1999). Clubbing: Dancing, ecstasy, and vitality. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• McCrae, K., Tobias, S., Tupper, K., Arredondo, J., Henry, B., Mema, S., Wood, E., & Ti, L. (2019). Drug checking services at music festivals and events in a Canadian setting. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 205, 1–4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKnight, C., & Des Jarlais, D. C. (2018). Being "hooked up" during a sharp increase in the availability of illicitly manufactured fentanyl: Adaptations of drug using practices among people who use drugs (PWUD) in New York City. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 60, 82–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mema, S., Sage, C., Xu, Y., Tupper, K., Ziemianowicz, D., McCrae, K., Leigh, M., Munn, M. B., Taylor, D., & Corneil, T. (2018). Drug checking at an electronic dance music festival during the public health overdose emergency in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Public Health = Revue Canadienne de Sante Publique, 109(5–6), 740–744. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-018-0126-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, D. (2004). Governing street-based injecting drug users: A critique of heroin overdose prevention in Australia. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 59(7), 1547–1557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.01.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Malley, P. (2004). Risking drug use. In P. O’Malley (Eds.), Risk, uncertainty and government (pp. 155–171). Glasshouse Press.
   Google Scholar
• Palamar, J., Salomone, A., Vincenti, M., & Cleland, C. (2016). Detection of ‘bath salts’ and other novel psychoactive substances in hair samples of ecstasy/MDMA/’Molly’ users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 161, 200–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, J. N., Rashidi, E., Foti, K., Zoorob, M., Sherman, S., & Alexander, C. (2021). Fentanyl and fentanyl analogs in the illicit stimulant supply: Results from US drug seizure data, 2011–2016. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 218, 108416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, J. N., Weir, B., Allen, S., Chaulk, P., & Sherman, S. (2018). Fentanyl-contaminated drugs and non-fatal overdose among people who inject drugs in Baltimore, MD. Harm Reduction Journal, 15(34), 1–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parker, H., Aldridge, J., & Measham, F. (1998). Illegal leisure: The normalization of adolescent recreational drug use. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Purcell, J., & Graham, K. (2005). A typology of Toronto nightclubs at the turn of the millennium. Contemporary Drug Problems, 32(1), 131–167.
   Google Scholar
• Ravn, S. (2012). Managing drug use in Danish club settings: A normalized enterprise? Young, 20(3), 257–276.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed, M., Roth, A., Tabb, L., Groves, A., & Lankenau, S. (2021). I probably got a minute: Perceptions of fentanyl test strip use among people who use stimulants. International Journal of Drug Policy, 92, 103147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeves, S., Kuper, A., & Hodges, B. D. (2008). Qualitative research: Qualitative research methodologies: Ethnography. British Medical Journal, 337, 512–514.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Refstad, S. (2003). Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) poisoning; a ‘party drug’ with lethal effects. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica, 47(10), 1298–1299. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1399-6576.2003.00245.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, T. (1995). Theorizing and researching risk: Notes on the social relations of risk in heroin users’ lifestyles. In P. Aggelton, P. Davies, & G. Hart (Eds.), Aids: Safety, sexuality and risk (pp. 123–140). Taylor & Francis.
   Google Scholar
• Rhodes, T. (1997). Risk theory in epidemic times: Sex, drugs and the social organisation of ‘risk behaviour. Sociology of Health & Illness, 19(2), 208–227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, T. (2002). The ‘risk environment’: A framework for understanding and reducing drug-related harm. International Journal of Drug Policy, 13(2), 85–94.
   Google Scholar
• Rhodes, T. (2009). Risk environments and drug harms: A social science for harm reduction approach. International Journal of Drug Policy, 20(3), 193–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, T., Larissa, M., Anya, S., Lowndes, C., Andrey, R., Mikhail, K., & Renton, A. (2003). “Situational factors influencing drug injecting, risk reduction and syringe exchange in Togliatti City, Russian Federation: A qualitative study of micro risk environment.” Social Science & Medicine 57(1), 39–54.
   Google Scholar
• Rouhani, S., Park, J. N., Morales, K., Green, T., & Sherman, S. (2019). Harm reduction measures employed by people using opioids with suspected fentanyl exposure in Boston, Baltimore, and Providence. Harm Reduction Journal, 16(1), 39–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saleemi, S., Pennybaker, S., Wooldridge, M., & Johnson, M. (2017). Who is ‘Molly’? MDMA adulterants by product name and the impact of harm-reduction services at raves. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 31(8), 1056–1060. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881117715596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders, B. (2005). In the club: Ecstasy use and supply in a London Nightclub. Journal of the British Sociological Association, 39(2), 241–258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders, B. (2006). Young people, clubs and drugs. In B. Sanders (Ed.), Drugs, clubs, and young people: Sociological and public health perspectives (pp. 1–11). Ashgate Publishing Limited.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, J. (2011). The intimate insider: Negotiating the ethics of friendship when doing insider research. Qualitative Research, 11(1), 3–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson, E., Lampkin, H., Maynard, R., Karamouzian, M., & Jozaghi, E. (2017). The lessons learned from the fentanyl overdose crises in British Columbia, Canada. Addiction, 111, 2068–2070.
   Google Scholar
• Tighe, B., Dunn, M., McKay, F., & Piatkowski, T. (2017). Information sought, information shared: Exploring performance and image enhancing drug user-facilitated harm reduction information in online forums. Harm Reduction Journal, 14(1), 48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-017-0176-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tolich, M. (2004). Internal confidentiality: When confidentiality assurances fail relational informants. Qualitative Sociology, 27(1), 101–106.
   Google Scholar
• TRIP! Project. (2021). Part 2: ADHD brains. Retrieved June 1, 2021, from http://tripproject.ca
   Google Scholar
• Tupper, K., McCrae, K., Garber, I., Lysyshyn, M., & Wood, E. (2018). Initial results of a drug checking pilot program to detect fentanyl adulteration in a Canadian setting. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 190, 242–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urquhart, C. (2013). Grounded theory for qualitative research. Sage Publications Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Warwick, I., Douglas, N., Aggleton, P., & Boyce, P. (2003). Context matters: The educational potential of gay bars revisited. AIDS Education and Prevention: Official Publication of the International Society for AIDS Education, 15(4), 320–333. https://doi.org/10.1521/aeap.15.5.320.23824
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watt, D. (2007). On becoming a qualitative researcher: The value of reflexivity. The Qualitative Report, 12(1), 82–101.
   Google Scholar
• Winstock, A. R., Wolff, K., & Ramsey, J. (2001). Ecstasy pill testing: Harm minimization gone too far? Addiction (Abingdon, England), 96(8), 1139–1148. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.96811397.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfinger, N. (2002). On writing fieldnotes: Collection strategies and background expectancies. Qualitative Research, 2(1), 85–95.
   Google Scholar