The Cycle of Social Exclusion for Urban, Young Men of Color in the United States: What Is the Role of Incarceration?

REFERENCES

• Anderson , E. 2000 . Code of the street: Decency, violence and the moral life of the inner city , New York , NY : W.W. Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Barker , G. T. 2005 . Dying to be men: Youth, masculinity and social exclusion , New York , NY : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Besharov , D. J. 1999 . America's disconnected youth: Toward a preventive strategy , Washington , DC : AEI Press .
   Google Scholar
• Black , K. and Cho , R. 2004 . New beginnings: The need for supportive housing for previously incarcerated people , New York , NY : Common Ground Community and Corporation for Supportive Housing .
   Google Scholar
• Bloomberg , M. 2003 . Mayor's management report, fiscal year 2003 , New York , NY : City of New York .
   Google Scholar
• Boire , R. G. 2007 . Life sentences: The collateral sanctions associated with marijuana offenses , Davis , CA : Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics .
   Google Scholar
• Bolas , E. J. 2005 . State of the city's homeless youth report: 2005 , New York , NY : New York City Association of Homeless and Street-Involved Youth Organizations .
   Google Scholar
• Bourgois , P. 1995 . In search of respect: Selling crack in el barrio , Cambridge , , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Broome , K. M. , Knight , K. , Hiller , M. L. and Simpson , D. D. 1996 . Drug treatment process indicators for probationers and prediction of recidivism . Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 13 ( 6 ) : 487 – 491 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brotherton , D. C. and Barrios , L. 2004 . The almighty Latin king and queen nation: Street politics and the transformation of a New York City gang , New York , NY : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , A. L. and Donnor , J. K. 2011 . Toward a new narrative on Black males, education, and public policy . Race, Ethnicity & Education , 14 ( 1 ) : 17 – 32 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bureau of Justice Statistics . 2003 . Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics, 2003 , Washington , DC : United States Department of Justice .
   Google Scholar
• Bureau of Justice Statistics . 2006 . Criminal offender statistics , Washington , DC : United States Department of Justice .
   Google Scholar
• Canada , G. and Parsons , R. D. 2006 . Increasing opportunity and reducing poverty in New York City , New York , NY : New York City Commission for Economic Opportunity .
   Google Scholar
• Chan, S. (2008, May 9). Rockefeller-era drug laws, 35 years later. New York Times. http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/09/rockefellerera-drug-laws-35-years-later/ (http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/09/rockefellerera-drug-laws-35-years-later/)
   Google Scholar
• Chernick , H. and Reimers , C. 2001 . Welfare reform and New York City's low-income population . Economic Policy Review , 7 : 83 – 97 .
   Google Scholar
• Clear , T. 2007 . Imprisoning communities: How mass incarceration makes disadvantaged neighborhoods worse , New York , NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cotton-Oldenburg , N. 1999 . Women inmates' risky sex and drug behaviors: Are they related? . American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 25 ( 1 ) : 129 – 149 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culhane , D. P. and Park , J. M. 2007 . Homelessness and child welfare services in New York City: Exploring trends and opportunities for improving outcomes for children and youth , Philadelphia , PA : University of Pennsylvania Scholarly Commons .
   Google Scholar
• Daniels , J. , Crum , M. , Ramaswamy , M. and Freudenberg , N. 2011 . Creating REAL MEN: Description of an intervention to reduce drug use, HIV risk and rearrest among young men returning to urban communities from jail . Health Promotion and Practice , 12 ( 1 ) : 44 – 55 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Darling-Hammond, L. (2007, May 21). Evaluating ‘No Child Left Behind.’ The Nation. http://www.thenation.com/article/evaluating-no-child-left-behind (http://www.thenation.com/article/evaluating-no-child-left-behind)
   Google Scholar
• Commission , Dellums . 2006 . A way out: Creating partners for our nation's prosperity by expanding life paths of young men of color , Washington , DC : Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Fine , M. , Freudenberg , N. , Payne , Y. , Perkins , T. , Smith , K. and Wanzer , K. 2003 . Anything can happen with police around”: Urban youth evaluate strategies of surveillance in public places . Journal of Social Issues , 59 ( 1 ) : 141 – 158 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freudenberg , N. , Daniels , J. , Crum , M. , Perkins , T. and Richie , B. E. 2005 . Coming home from jail: The social and health consequences of community reentry for women, male adolescents, and their families and communities . American Journal of Public Health , 95 ( 10 ) : 1725 – 1736 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freudenberg , N. , Moseley , J. , Labriola , M. , Daniels , J. and Murrill , C. 2007 . Comparison of health and social characteristics of people leaving New York City jails by age, gender, and race/ethnicity: Implications for public health interventions . Public Health Reports , 122 : 733 – 743 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freudenberg , N. , Ramaswamy , M. , Daniels , J. , Crum , M. , Ompad , D. C. and Vlahov , D. 2010 . Reducing drug use, human immunodeficiency virus risk, and recidivism among young men leaving jail: evaluation of the REAL MEN re-entry program . Journal of Adolescent Health , 47 ( 5 ) : 448 – 455 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gar , E. 2011 . The landscape of recession: Unemployment and safety net services across urban and suburban America , Washington , DC : Metropolitan Policy Program at Brookings .
   Google Scholar
• Goffman , A. 2009 . On the run: Wanted men in a Philadelphia ghetto . American Sociological Review , 74 : 339 – 357 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonnerman , J. 2004 . Life on the outside: The prison odyssey of Elaine Bartlett , New York , NY : Picador .
   Google Scholar
• Hagan , J. , Shedd , C. and Payne , M. R. 2005 . Race, ethnicity, and youth perceptions of criminal injustice . American Sociological Review , 70 : 381 – 407 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison , P. M. and Beck , A. J. 2006 . Prison and jail inmates at mid- year 2005 , Washington , DC : United States Department of Justice .
   Google Scholar
• Hartney , C. and Vuong , L. 2009 . Created equal: Racial and ethnic disparities in the U.S. criminal justice system , Oakland , CA : National Council on Crime and Delinquency .
   Google Scholar
• Healey , J. F. 2004 . Statistics: A tool for social research , Florence , KY : Wadsworth Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Hill Collins , P. 2004 . Black sexual politics: African Americans, gender, and the new racism , New York , NY : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Holder , M. 2010 . Unemployment in New York City during the recession and early recovery: Young black men hit the hardest , New York , NY : Community Service Society of New York .
   Google Scholar
• Holzer , H. J. , Raphael , S. and Stoll , M. A. 2003 . Employment barriers facing ex-offenders , Washington , DC : Urban Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Houppert, K. (1999, October 25). You're not entitled: welfare “reform” is leading to government lawlessness. The Nation. http://www.thenation.com/article/youre-not-entitled (http://www.thenation.com/article/youre-not-entitled)
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch . 2004 . No second chance: People with criminal records denied access to public housing , New York , NY : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Iguchi , M.Y. , London , J. A. , Forge , N. G. , Hickman , L. , Fain , T. and Riehman , K. 2002 . Elements of well-being affected by criminalizing the drug user . Public Health Reports , 117 (Suppl 1) : S146 – S150 .
   Google Scholar
• Jonson-Reid , M. and Barth , R. P. 2000 . From placement to prison: The path to adolescent incarceration from child welfare supervised foster or group care . Children and Youth Services Review , 22 ( 7 ) : 493 – 516 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , J. , Vlahov , D. and Freudenberg , N. 2006 . Primary care and health insurance among women released from New York City jails . Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved , 17 ( 1 ) : 200 – 217 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legal Action Center . 2006 . How to get Section 8 or public housing even with a criminal record: A guide for New York City Housing Authority Applicants and their advocates , New York , NY : Legal Action Center .
   Google Scholar
• Levine , H. G. and Small , D. 2008 . Marijuana arrest crusade racial bias and police policy in New York City , New York , NY : Civil Liberties Union . 1997–2007
   Google Scholar
• Levitan , M. 2007 . Unemployment and joblessness in New York City, 2006: Recovery bypasses youth , New York , NY : Community Service Society of New York .
   Google Scholar
• Levitan , M. 2005 . Out of school, out of work … out of luck? New York City's disconnected youth , New York , NY : Community Service Society of New York .
   Google Scholar
• Link , B. G. and Phelan , J. 1995 . Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35 , : 80 – 94 .
   Google Scholar
• Lundgren , L. M. , Amodeo , M. and Chassler , D. 2005 . Mental health status, drug treatment use, and needle sharing among injection drug users . AIDS Education and Prevention , 17 ( 6 ) : 525 – 539 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald , R. and Marsh , J. 2001 . Disconnected youth? . Journal of Youth Studies , 4 ( 4 ) : 373 – 391 .
   Google Scholar
• McDonnell , M. , Brookes , L. , Lurigio , A. , Baille , D. , Rodriguez , P. , Palanca , P. and Eisenberg , S. 2011 . Realizing the potential of national health care reform to reduce criminal justice expenditures and recidivism among jail populations (Community Oriented Correctional Health Care Issue Paper) , Chicago , IL : Center for Health and Justice at TASC .
   Google Scholar
• Mauer , M. 2006 . Race to incarcerate , New York , NY : New Press .
   Google Scholar
• Moore , L. D. and Elkavich , A. 2008 . Who's using and who's doing time: Incarceration, the war on drugs, and public health . American Journal of Public Health , 98 ( 5 ) : 782 – 786 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan , S. P. and Teachman , J. D. 1988 . Logistic regression: description, examples, and comparisons . Journal of Marriage and Family , 50 : 929 – 936 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• New York City Department of Education . 2008 . Graduation rates class of 2007 (2003 cohort) , New York , NY : City of New York .
   Google Scholar
• New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene . 2002 . Inmates in custody at least five days and released to NYC: Home residences , New York , NY : City of New York .
   Google Scholar
• New York State Division of Probation and Correctional Alternatives . 2008 . Directory of alternatives to incarceration , New York , NY : Directory of Alternatives to Incarceration Programs in New York City .
   Google Scholar
• Pager , D. 2003 . The mark of a criminal record . American Journal of Sociology , 108 ( 5 ) : 937 – 975 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payne , Y. 2006 . A gangster and a gentleman . Men and Masculinities , 8 ( 3 ) : 288 – 297 .
   Google Scholar
• Pettit , B. and Western , B. 2004 . Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration . American Sociological Review , 69 ( 2 ) : 151 – 169 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips , M. T. 2002 . Jail displacement for ATI programs , New York , NY : New York City Criminal Justice Agency .
   Google Scholar
• Re-entry Policy Council . 2005 . Report preview of Report of the Re-entry Policy Council: charting the safe and successful return of prisoners to the community , New York , NY : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Resnick , M. D. , Bearman , P. S. , Blum , R. W. , Bauman , K. E. , Harris , K. M. , Jones , J. and Udry , J. R. 1997 . Protecting adolescents from harm. Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health . Journal of the American Medical Association , 278 ( 10 ) : 823 – 832 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rimer , S. July 25 2004 . Second chance from prison to school , July 25 , B25 New York Times .
   Google Scholar
• Roman , C. G. and Travis , J. 2004 . Taking stock: Housing, homelessness, and prisoner reentry , New York , NY : Urban Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Sheu , M. , Hogan , J. , Allsworth , J. , Stein , M. , Vlahov , D. , Schoenbaum , E. E. and Flanigan , T. 2002 . Continuity of medical care and risk of incarceration in HIV-positive and high-risk HIV-negative women . Journal of Womens Health , 11 ( 8 ) : 743 – 750 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Social Exclusion Unit . 2000 . Report of policy action team 12: Young people , London : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Spitzer , E. 1999 . The New York City Police Department's “stop and frisk” practices: A report to the people of the state of New York from the Office of the Attorney General , Albany , NY : New York State Office of the Attorney General .
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , M. L. 1989 . Getting paid: Youth crime and work in the inner cities , Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Swanson , C.B. 2004 . Who graduates? Who doesn't? A statistical portrait of public high-school graduation, Class of 2001 , New York , NY : Urban Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Taifa , N. and Beane , T. N. 2009 . Integrative solutions to interrelated issues: A multidisciplinary look behind the cycle of incarceration . Harvard Law and Policy Review , 3 ( 2 ) : 283 – 306 .
   Google Scholar
• Taxman , F. S. , Byrne , J. M. and Pattavina , A. 2005 . Racial disparity and the legitimacy of the criminal justice system: exploring consequences for deterrence . Journal of Health Care for the Poor and the Underserved , 16 ( 4 Suppl B ) : 57 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Townsend , L. , Flisher , A. J. and King , G. 2007 . A systematic review of the relationship between high school dropout and substance use . Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , 10 ( 4 ) : 295 – 317 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treschan , L. and Molnar , C. 2008 . Out of focus: A snapshot of public funding to reconnect youth to education and employment , New York , NY : Community Service Society of New York .
   Google Scholar
• Tyler, J. (1998). The GED: Whom does it help? Results from a new approach to studying the economic benefits of the GED. Focus on Basics: Connecting Research and Practice. http://www.ncsall.net/?id=771&pid=409 (http://www.ncsall.net/?id=771&pid=409)
   Google Scholar
• Vigil , J. D. 2002 . A rainbow of gangs: Street cultures in the mega city , Austin , TX : University of Texas Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wacquant , L. 2001 . Deadly symbiosis: When ghetto and prison meet and mesh . Punishment & Society , 3 ( 1 ) : 95 – 134 .
   Google Scholar
• Whitehead , T. 1992 . “ Expressions of masculinity in a Jamaican sugartown: Implications for family planning ” . In Gender constructs and social issue , Edited by: Whitehead , T. and Reid , B. 103 – 141 . Chicago , IL : University of Illinois Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , W. J. 1996 . When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor , New York , NY : Alfred A. Knopf .
   Google Scholar
• Young , J. 2007 . Vertigo in late modernity , London , , UK : Sage .
   Google Scholar