A Meta-Analytic Review of Naming-Speed Deficits in Developmental Dyslexia

References

• Ahissar, M. (2007). Dyslexia and the anchoring-deficit hypothesis. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 458–465. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahissar, M., Lubin, Y., Putter-Katz, H., & Banai, K. (2006). Dyslexia and the failure to form a perceptual anchor. Nature Neuroscience, 9(12), 1558–1564. doi:10.1038/nn1800
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo, S., Faísca, L., Bramão, I., Inácio, F., Petersson, K. M., & Reis, A. (2011). Object naming in dyslexic children: More than a phonological deficit. The Journal of General Psychology, 138(3), 215–228. doi:10.1080/00221309.2011.582525
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo, S., Faísca, L., Reis, A., Marques, F., & Petersson, K. M. (2016). Visual naming deficits in dyslexia: An ERP investigation of different processing domains. Neuropsychologia, 91, 61–76. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.07.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo, S., Fernandes, T., & Huettig, F. (2018). Learning to read facilitates the retrieval of phonological representations in rapid automatized naming: Evidence from unschooled illiterate, ex‐illiterate, and schooled literate adults. Developmental Science. doi:10.1111/desc.12783
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo, S., Inácio, F., Francisco, A., Faísca, L., Petersson, K. M., & Reis, A. (2011). Component processes subserving rapid automatized naming in dyslexic and non-dyslexic readers. Dyslexia, 17, 242–255. doi:10.1002/dys.433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo, S., Pacheco, A., Faísca, L., Petersson, K. M., & Reis, A. (2010). Visual rapid naming and phonological abilities: Different subtypes in dyslexic children. International Journal of Psychology, 45, 443–452. doi:10.1080/00207594.2010.499949
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo, S., Reis, A., Petersson, K. M., & Faísca, L. (2015). Rapid automatized naming and reading performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107, 868–883. doi:10.1037/edu0000006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blomert, L., & Vaessen, A. (2009). Differentiaal diagnostiek van dyslexie; cognitieve analyse van lezen en spellen [dyslexia differential diagnosis; cognitive analysis of reading and spelling]. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Boom test publishers B. V.
   Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M., Hedges, L., Higgins, J., & Rothstein, H. (2005). Comprehensive meta-analysis (Version 2) [computer software]. Englewood, NJ: Biostat.
   Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, England: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Bowers, P. G., & Newby-Clark, E. (2002). The role of naming speed within a model of reading acquisition. Reading and Writing: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 15, 109–126. doi:10.1023/A:1013820421199
   Google Scholar
• Bowers, P. G., & Swanson, L. B. (1991). Naming speed deficits in reading disability: Multiple measures of a singular process. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 51, 195–219. doi:10.1016/0022-0965(91)90032-N
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowers, P. G., & Wolf, M. (1993). Theoretical links among naming speed, precise timing mechanisms and orthographic skill in dyslexia. Reading and Writing: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 69–85. doi:10.1007/BF01026919
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant, P. E., & Goswami, U. (1986). The strengths and weaknesses of the reading level design. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 101–103. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.100.1.101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caravolas, M., Lervåg, A., Defior, S., Málková, G. S., & Hulme, C. (2013). Different patterns, but equivalent predictors, of growth in reading in consistent and inconsistent orthographies. Psychological Science, 24(8), 1398–1407. doi:10.1177/0956797612473122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castel, C., Pech-Georgel, C., George, F., & Ziegler, J. C. (2008). Lien entre dénomination rapide et lecture chez les enfants dyslexiques [Link between rapid automatized naming and reading in dyslexic children]. Année Psychologique, 108, 395–421. doi:10.4074/S0003503308003011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke, P., Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2005). Individual differences in RAN and reading: A response timing analysis. Journal of Research in Reading, 28, 73–86. doi:10.1111/jrir.2005.28.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Compton, D. L. (2003). Modeling the relationship between growth in rapid naming speed and growth in decoding skill in first-grade children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 225–239. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.225
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, H. M. (2010). Research synthesis and meta-analysis: A step-by-step approach (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• de Jong, P. F. (2011). What discrete and serial rapid automatized naming can reveal about reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(4), 314–337. doi:10.1080/10888438.2010.485624
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jong, P. F., & van der Leij, A. (2003). Developmental changes in the manifestation of a phonological deficit in dyslexic children learning to read a regular orthography. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 22–40. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.22
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Luca, M., Burani, C., Paizi, D., Spinelli, D., & Zoccolotti, P. (2010). Letter and letter-string processing in developmental dyslexia. Cortex, 46(10), 1272–1283. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.06.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1976). Rapid “automatized” naming (R.A.N.): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471–479. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(76)90075-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Filippo, G., Zoccolotti, P., & Ziegler, J. C. (2008). Rapid naming deficits in dyslexia: A stumbling block for the perceptual anchor theory of dyslexia. Developmental Science, 11(6), F40–F47. doi:10.1111/desc.2008.11.issue-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. L. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel plot based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56, 455–463. doi:10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faust, M., & Sharfstein-Friedman, S. (2003). Naming difficulties in adolescents with dyslexia: Application of the tip-of-the-tongue paradigm. Brain and Cognition, 53, 211–217. doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00112-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes, T., Araújo, S., Sucena, A., Reis, A., & Castro, S. L. (2017). The 1-min screening test for reading problems in college students: Psychometric properties of the 1-min TIL. Dyslexia, 23(1), 66–87. doi:10.1002/dys.v23.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandes, T., Vale, A. P., Martins, B., Morais, J., & Kolinsky, R. (2014). The deficit of letter processing in developmental dyslexia: Combining evidence from dyslexics, typical readers and illiterate adults. Developmental Science, 17(1), 125–141. doi:10.1111/desc.12102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasperini, F., Brizzolara, D., Cristofani, P., Casalini, C., & Maria, A. (2014). The contribution of discrete-trial naming and visual recognition to rapid automatized naming deficits of dyslexic children with and without a history of language delay. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 652. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Aro, M., Liao, C.-H., & Parrila, R. (2016). Modeling the relationship between rapid automatized naming and literacy skills across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 143, 48–64. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.10.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Ghazyani, R., & Parrila, R. (2018). Are RAN deficits in university students with dyslexia due to defective lexical access, impaired anchoring, or slow articulation?. Annals of Dyslexia, 68, 85–103. doi:10.1007/s11881-018-0156-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Papadopoulos, T. C., Zarouna, E., & Parrila, R. (2012). Are auditory and visual processing deficits related to developmental dyslexia? Dyslexia, 18, 110–129. doi:10.1002/dys.v18.2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., Cui, Y., & Papadopoulos, T. C. (2013). Why is rapid automatized naming related to reading? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 115, 218–225. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.10.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., & Kirby, J. (2006). Rapid naming speed components and early reading acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(2), 199–220. doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr1002_4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., & Kirby, J. (2009). RAN components and reading development from grade 3 to grade 5: What underlies their relationship? Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(6), 508–534. doi:10.1080/10888430903034796
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., Kirby, J. R., & Stephenson, K. (2008). Rapid naming components and their relationship with phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge, speed of processing, and different reading outcomes. Scientific Studies of Reading, 12, 325–350. doi:10.1080/10888430802378518
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., & Liao, C. (2008). Rapid naming speed and reading across languages that vary in orthographic consistency. Reading and Writing, 21, 885–903. doi:10.1007/s11145-007-9096-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R. K., & Papadopoulos, T. C. (2008). Predictors of word decoding and reading fluency across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(3), 566–580. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.566
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon, P. C., & Hoedemaker, R. S. (2016). Effective scheduling of looking and talking during rapid automatized naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 42(5), 742–760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goswami, U. (2003). Why theories about developmental dyslexia require developmental designs. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(12), 534–540. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goswami, U. (2015). Sensory theories of developmental dyslexia: Three challenges for research. Nature Review Neuroscience, 16(1), 43–54. doi:10.1038/nrn3836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goswami, U., & Bryant, P. (1989). The interpretation of studies using the reading level design. Journal of Reading Behavior, 21(4), 413–424. doi:10.1080/10862968909547687
   Google Scholar
• Griffiths, Y. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2001). Auditory word identification and phonological skills in dyslexic and average readers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 22, 419–439. doi:10.1017/S0142716401003071
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huettig, F., Lachmann, T., Reis, A., & Petersson, K. M. (2018). Distinguishing cause from effect - Many deficits associated with developmental dyslexia may be a consequence of reduced and suboptimal reading experience. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 33(3), 333–350. doi:10.1080/23273798.2017.1348528
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M. W., Ashby, J., & Branigan, H. P. (2013). Dyslexia and fluency: Parafoveal and foveal influences on rapid automatized naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39(2), 554–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M. W., Branigan, H. P., Hatzidaki, A., & Obregón, M. (2010). Is the ‘naming’ deficit in dyslexia a misnomer? Cognition, 116, 56–70. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.03.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M. W., Branigan, H. P., & Kelly, M. L. (2009). Dyslexic and nondyslexic reading fluency: Rapid automatized naming and the importance of continuous lists. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(3), 567–572. doi:10.3758/PBR.16.3.567
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M. W., Obregón, M., Kelly, M. L., & Branigan, H. P. (2008). Elucidating the component processes involved in dyslexic and non-dyslexic reading fluency: An eye-tracking study. Cognition, 109, 389–407. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.10.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kail, R., & Hall, L. K. (1994). Processing speed, naming speed, and reading. Developmental Psychology, 30, 949–954. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.6.949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kail, R., Hall, L. K., & Caskey, B. J. (1999). Processing speed, exposure to print, and naming speed. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 303–314. doi:10.1017/S0142716499002076
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby, J. R., Desrochers, A., Roth, L., & Lai, S. S. V. (2008). Longitudinal predictors of word reading development. Canadian Psychology, 49, 103–110. doi:10.1037/0708-5591.49.2.103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby, J. R., Georgiou, G. K., Martinussen, R., & Parrila, R. (2010). Naming speed and reading: From prediction to instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(3), 341–362. doi:10.1598/RRQ.45.3.4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby, J. R., Parrila, R. K., & Pfeiffer, S. L. (2003). Naming speed and phonological awareness as predictors of reading development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3), 453–464. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.453
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuperman, V., Van Dyke, J. A., & Henry, R. (2016). Eye-movement control in RAN and reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(2), 173–188. doi:10.1080/10888438.2015.1128435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landerl, K., Freudenthaler, H. H., Heene, M., De Jong, P. F., Desrochers, A., Manolitsis, G., & Georgiou, G. K. (2018). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming as longitudinal predictors of reading in five alphabetic orthographies with varying degrees of consistency. Scientific Studies of Reading. doi:10.1080/10888438.2018.1510936
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landerl, K., Ramus, F., Moll, K., Lyytinen, H., Leppänen, P. H. T., Lohvansuu, K., & Valdois, S. (2013). Predictors of developmental dyslexia in European orthographies with varying complexity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(6), 686–694. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landerl, K., & Wimmer, H. (2008). Development of word reading fluency and spelling in a consistent orthography: An 8-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 150–161. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.150
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landerl, K., Wimmer, H., & Frith, U. (1997). The impact of orthographic consistency on dyslexia: A German-English comparison. Cognition, 63, 315–334. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(97)00005-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lervåg, A., & Hulme, C. (2009). Rapid automatized naming (RAN) taps a mechanism that places constraints on the development of early reading fluency. Psychological Science, 20(8), 1040–1048. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02405.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima, C. F., & Castro, S. L. (2010). Reading strategies in orthographies of intermediate depth are flexible: Modulation of length effects in Portuguese. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 22(2), 190–215. doi:10.1080/09541440902750145
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logan, J. A. R., Schatschneider, C., & Wagner, R. K. (2011). Rapid serial naming and reading ability: The role of lexical access. Reading and Writing: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 24, 1–25. doi:10.1007/s11145-009-9199-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manis, F. R., Doi, L. M., & Bhadha, B. (2000). Naming speed, phonological awareness, and orthographic knowledge in second graders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(4), 325–333. doi:10.1177/002221940003300405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Wat, C. P., & Wagner, R. K. (2003). Morphological awareness uniquely predicts young children’s Chinese character recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 743–751. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.743
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moll, K., Ramus, F., Bartling, J., Bruder, J., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., & Landerl, K. (2014). Cognitive mechanisms underlying reading and spelling development in five European orthographies. Learning and Instruction, 29, 65–77. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.09.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moura, O., Albuquerque, C. P., Pinho, M. S., Vilar, M., Lopes, A. F., Alberto, I., & Simões, M. R. (2017). Factor structure and measurement invariance of the coimbra neuropsychological assessment battery (BANC). Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 25, 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Moura, O., Moreno, J., Pereira, M., & Simões, M. R. (2015). Developmental dyslexia and phonological processing in European Portuguese orthography. Dyslexia, 21(1), 60–79. doi:10.1002/dys.v21.1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nation, K., Marshall, C. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2001). Phonological and semantic contributions to children’s picture naming skill: Evidence from children with developmental reading disorders. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16(2/3), 241–259.
   Google Scholar
• Nergård‐Nilssen, T., & Hulme, C. (2014). Developmental dyslexia in adults: Behavioural manifestations and cognitive correlates. Dyslexia, 20(3), 191–207. doi:10.1002/dys.1477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norton, E. S., & Wolf, M. (2012). Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 427–452. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan, J., Yan, M., Laubrock, J., Shu, H., & Kliegl, R. (2013). Eye–Voice span during rapid automatized naming of digits and dice in Chinese normal and dyslexic children. Developmental Science, 16(6), 967–979.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington, B. F., Cardoso-Martins, C., Green, P. A., & Lefly, D. L. (2001). Comparing the phonological and double deficit hypotheses for developmental dyslexia. Reading and Writing: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 14, 707–755. doi:10.1023/A:1012239018038
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, R. L., Arnett, A. B., Pennington, B. F., Byrne, B., Samuelsson, S., & Olson, R. K. (2018). Literacy acquisition influences children’s rapid automatized naming. Developmental Science, 21(3), e12589. doi:10.1111/desc.12589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell, D., Stainthorp, R., Stuart, M., Garwood, H., & Quinlan, P. (2007). An experimental comparison between rival theories of rapid automatized naming performance and its relationship to reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 98, 46–68. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2007.04.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Protopapas, A., Altani, A., & Georgiou, G. K. (2013). Development of serial processing in reading and rapid naming. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116, 914–929. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Protopapas, A., Katopodi, K., Altani, A., & Georgiou, G. K. (2018). Word reading fluency as a serial naming task. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22(3), 248–263. doi:10.1080/10888438.2018.1430804
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reis, A., Faísca, L., Araújo, S., & Castro, S. L. (2017). Dyslexia from childhood to adulthood: Exploring the long-term stability of reading predictors. Paper presented at the XII International Symposium of Psycholinguistics, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. London, England: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Seymour, P. H. K., Aro, M., & Erskine, J. M. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94, 143–174. doi:10.1348/000712603321661859
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, S., Faísca, L., Araújo, S., Casaca, L., Carvalho, L., Petersson, K. M., & Reis, A. (2016). Too little or too much? Parafoveal preview benefits and parafoveal load costs in dyslexic adults. Annals of Dyslexia, 66(2), 187–201. doi:10.1007/s11881-015-0113-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, S., Georgiou, G. K., Su, M., & Hua, S. (2016). How well do phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming correlate with chinese reading accuracy and fluency? A meta-analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(2), 99–123. doi:10.1080/10888438.2015.1088543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprenger-Charolles, L., Siegel, L. S., Jimenez, J. E., & Ziegler, J. (2011). Prevalence and reliability of phonological, surface, and mixed profiles in dyslexia: A review of studies conducted in languages varying in orthographic depth. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(6), 498–521. doi:10.1080/10888438.2010.524463
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sucena, A., Castro, S. L., & Seymour, P. (2009). Developmental dyslexia in an orthography of intermediate depth: The case of European Portuguese. Reading and Writing, 22(7), 791–810. doi:10.1007/s11145-008-9156-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swan, D., & Goswami, U. (1997). Picture naming deficits in developmental dyslexia: The phonological representations hypothesis. Brain and Language, 56, 334–353. doi:10.1006/brln.1997.1855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, H. L., & Hsieh, C.-J. (2009). Reading disabilities in adults: A selective meta-Analysis of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 79(4), 1362–1390. doi:10.3102/0034654309350931
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1994). Longitudinal studies of phonological processing and reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 276–286. doi:10.1177/002221949402700503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Truman, A., & Hennessey, N. W. (2006). The locus of naming difficulties in children with dyslexia: Evidence of inefficient phonological encoding. Language and Cognitive Processes, 21(4), 361–393. doi:10.1080/01690960400011746
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaessen, A., Bertrand, D., Tóth, D., Csépe, V., Faísca, L., Reis, A., & Blomert, L. (2010). Cognitive development of fluent word reading does not qualitatively differ between transparent and opaque orthographies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 827–842. doi:10.1037/a0019465
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaessen, A., & Blomert, L. (2010). Long-term cognitive dynamics of fluent reading development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105, 213–231. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Den Broeck, W., & Geudens, A. (2012). Old and new ways to study characteristics of reading disability: The case of the nonword-reading deficit. Cognitive Psychology, 65(3), 414–456. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhagen, W., Aarnoutse, C., & van Leeuwe, J. (2008). Phonological awareness and naming speed in the prediction of dutch children’s word recognition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(4), 301–324. doi:10.1080/10888430802132030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhoeven, L., & Keuning, J. (2018). The nature of developmental dyslexia in a transparent orthography. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22(1), 7-23. doi:10.1080/10888438.2017.1317780
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhoeven, L., & Perfetti, C. A. (2017). Learning to read across languages and writing systems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192–212. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.192
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Laughon, P., Simmons, K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1993). Development of young readers’ phonological processing abilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 83–103. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.1.83
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh, D. J., Price, G. G., & Gillingham, M. G. (1988). The critical but transitory importance of letter naming. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 108–122. doi:10.2307/747907
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei, W., Georgiou, G. K., & Deng, C. (2015). Examining the cross-lagged relationships between RAN and word reading in Chinese. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19, 446–455. doi:10.1080/10888438.2015.1077447
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wimmer, H. (1993). Characteristics of developmental dyslexia in a regular writing system. Applied Psycholinguistics, 14, 1–33. doi:10.1017/S0142716400010122
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wimmer, H., Mayringer, H., & Landerl, K. (1998). Poor reading: A deficit in skill-automatization or a phonological deficit? Scientific Studies of Reading, 2(4), 321–340. doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr0204_2
   Google Scholar
• Wimmer, H., Mayringer, H., & Landerl, K. (2000). The double deficit hypothesis and difficulties in learning to read a regular orthography. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 668–680. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.4.668
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wimmer, H., & Schurz, M. (2010). Dyslexia in regular orthographies: Manifestation and causation. Dyslexia, 16, 283–299. doi:10.1002/dys.v16:4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415–438. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.415
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf, M., Bowers, P. G., & Biddle, K. (2000). Naming-speed processes, timing, and reading: A conceptual review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(4), 387–407. doi:10.1177/002221940003300409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff, U. (2014). RAN as a predictor of reading skills, and vice versa: Results from a randomised reading intervention. Annals of Dyslexia, 64, 151–165. doi:10.1007/s11881-014-0091-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan, M., Pan, J., Laubrock, J., Kliegl, R., & Shu, H. (2013). Parafoveal processing efficiency in rapid automatized naming: A comparison between Chinese normal and dyslexic children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 115, 579–589. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.01.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler, J. C. (2008). Better lose the anchor than the whole ship. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(7), 244–245. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler, J. C., Bertrand, D., Tóth, D., Csépe, V., Reis, A., Faísca, L., & Blomert, L. (2010). Orthographic depth and its impact on universal predictors of reading: A cross-language investigation. Psychological Science, 21, 551–559. doi:10.1177/0956797610378686
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler, J. C., Perry, C., Jacobs, A. M., & Braun, M. (2001). Identical words are read differently in different languages. Psychological Science, 12, 379–384. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziegler, J. C., Perry, C., Ma-Wyatt, A., Ladner, D., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2003). Developmental dyslexia in different languages: Language specific or universal? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 86, 169–193. doi:10.1016/S0022-0965(03)00139-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoccolotti, P., De Luca, M., Lami, L., Pizzoli, C., Pontillo, M., & Spinelli, D. (2013). Multiple stimulus presentation yields larger deficits in children with developmental dyslexia: A study with reading and RAN-type tasks. Child Neuropsychology, 19(6), 639–647. doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.718325
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar