Theory of Mind as a Mediator of Reading Comprehension Differences between Chinese School-Age Children with Autism and Typically Developing Peers

References

• American Psychiatric Association . (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR . Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Arciuli, J. , & Bailey, B. (2019). Efficacy of ABRACADABRA literacy instruction in a school setting for children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities , 85, 104 –115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arciuli, J. , Stevens, K. , Trembath, D. , & Simpson, I. (2013). The relationship between parent report of adaptive behavior and direct assessment of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research , 56(6), 1837–1844. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2013/12-0034)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson, L. , Slade, L. , Powell, D. , & Levy, J. P . (2017). Theory of mind in emerging reading comprehension: A longitudinal study of early indirect and direct effects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 164, 225–238. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.04.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Audit Commission. The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region . (2018). Chapter 3. Integrated Education. Retrieved from https://www.aud.gov.hk/pdf_e/e70ch03.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, B. , Arciuli, J. , & Stancliffe, R. J. (2017). Effects of ABRACADABRA literacy instruction on children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Educational Psychology , 109(2), 257–268. doi:10.1037/edu0000138
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron-Cohen, S. , Leslie, A. M. , & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a theory of mind? Cognition , 21(1), 37–46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basaraba, D. , Yovanoff, P. , & Alonzo, J . (2013). Examining The Structure of Reading Comprehension: Do Literal, Inferential, and Evaluative Comprehension Truly Exist? Reading and Writing , 26, 349 –379. doi:10.1007/s11145-012-9372-9
   Google Scholar
• Beaumont, R. B. , & Sofronoff, K. (2008). A new computerised advanced theory of mind measure for children with Asperger syndrome: The ATOMIC. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 38(2), 249–260. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0384-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boerma, I. E. , Mol, S. E. , & Jolles, J . (2017). The role of home literacy environment, mentalizing, expressive verbal ability, and print exposure in third and fourth graders’ reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading , 21(3), 179–193. doi:10.1080/10888438.2016.1277727
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowler, D. M. (1992). “Theory of mind” in Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 33(5), 877–893. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1992.tb01962.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brent, E. , Rios, P. , Happé, F. , & Charman, T. (2004). Performance of children with autism spectrum disorder on advanced theory of mind tasks. Autism , 8(3), 283–299. doi:10.1177/1362361304045217
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, H. M. , Oram-Cardy, J. , & Johnson, A. (2013). A meta-analysis of the reading comprehension skills of individuals on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 43(4), 932–955. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1638-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryan, L. , & Gast, D. (2000). Teaching on-task and on-schedule behaviors to high functioning children with autism via picture activity schedules. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 30, 553–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cain, K . (2010). Reading development and difficulties: An introduction . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Cain, K. , & Oakhill, J. V. (2008). Children’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective . New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carnahan, C. , & Williamson, P . (2010). Quality literacy instruction for students with autism spectrum disorders. Kansas: Autism Asperger Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Carnahan, C. , & Williamson, P ., & *Christman, J. (2011). Linking literacy and cognition for students on the spectrum. Teaching Exceptional Children, 43(6), 54–62.
   Google Scholar
• Choi, W. , Tong, X. , & Deacon, S. H. (2017). Double dissociations in reading comprehension difficulties among Chinese-English bilinguals and their association with tone awareness. Journal of Research in Reading , 40(2), 184–198. doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12077
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Census and Statistics Department . (2015). Persons with disabilities and chronic diseases in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics . Retrieved from https://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/B71501FB2015XXXXB0100.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Chung, F. H. K. , & Leung, M. T. (2008). Data analysis of Chinese characters in primary school corpora of Hong Kong and mainland China: Preliminary theoretical interpretations. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics , 22(4–5), 379–389. doi:10.1080/02699200701776757
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronin, K. A. (2014). The relationship among oral language, decoding skills, and reading comprehension in children with autism. Exceptionality , 22(3), 141–157. doi:10.1080/09362835.2013.865531
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devine, R. T. , & Hughes, C . (2016). Measuring theory of mind across middle childhood. Reliability and validity of the silent films and strange stories tasks. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 149, 23–40. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.07.011
   Google Scholar
• Dore, R. A. , Amendum, S. J. , Golinkoff, R. M. , & Hirsh-Pasek, K . (2018). Theory of mind: A hidden factor in reading comprehension?. Educational Psychology Review , 30(3), 1067 –1089. doi:10.1007/s10648-018-9443-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Efron, B. , & Tibshirani, R. (1993). An introduction to the bootstrap . New York, NY: Chapman & Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Elsabbagh, M. , Divan, G. , Koh, Y. J. , Kim, Y. S. , Kauchali, S. , Marcín, C. , … Fombonne, E. (2012). Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Research , 5(3), 160–179. doi:10.1002/aur.239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estes, A. , Rivera, V. , Bryan, M. , Cali, P. , & Dawson, G. (2011). Discrepancies between academic achievement and intellectual ability in higher-functioning school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 41(8), 1044–1052. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1127-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fombonne, E. (2005). The changing epidemiology of autism. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities , 18(4), 281–294. doi:10.1111/jar.2005.18.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forlin, C. , & Sin, K. F. (2010). Developing support for inclusion: A professional learning approach for teachers in Hong Kong. International Journal of Whole Schooling , 6(1), 7–26.
   Google Scholar
• Garfield, J. L. , Peterson, C. C. , & Perry, T. (2001). Social cognition, language acquisition and the development of the theory of mind. Mind & Language , 16(5), 494–541. doi:10.1111/mila.2001.16.issue-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gough, P. B. , & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education , 7(1), 6–10. doi:10.1177/074193258600700104
   Google Scholar
• Graesser, A. C. , Singer, M. , & Trabasso, T. (1994). Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension. Psychological Review , 101(3), 371–395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grigorenko, E. L. , Klin, A. , Pauls, D. L. , Senft, R. , Hooper, C. , & Volkmar, F. (2002). A descriptive study of hyperlexia in a clinically referred sample of children with developmental delays. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 32(1), 3–12. doi:10.1023/A:1017995805511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guajardo, N. R. , & Cartwright, K. B . (2016). The contribution of theory of mind, counterfactual reasoning, and executive function to pre-readers’ language comprehension and later reading awareness and comprehension in elementary school. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 144, 27–45. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.11.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancock, J. T., Dunham, P. J., & Purdy, K. (2000). Children's comprehension of critical and complimentary forms of verbal irony. Journal of Cognition and Development, 1(2), 227–248.
   Google Scholar
• Happé, F. G. (1993). Communicative competence and theory of mind in autism: A test of relevance theory. Cognition , 48(2), 101–119. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(93)90026-R
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Happe, F. , Booth, R. , Charlton, R. , & Hughes, C . (2006). Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain Cognition , 61(1), 25–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayward, E. O. , & Homer, B. D . (2017). Reliability and validity of advanced theory‐of‐mind measures in middle childhood and adolescence. British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 35(3), 454 –462. doi:10.1111/bjdp.12186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heyes, C. M. , & Frith, C. D. (2014). The cultural evolution of mind reading. Science , 344(6190), 1243091. doi:10.1126/science.1243091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D. W. O., Tsang, S. M., & Lee, S. H. (2007). The Hong Kong test of specific learning difficulties in reading and writing. Hong Kong: China. Specific Learning Difficulties Research Team.
   Google Scholar
• Hodgdon, L. Q. (1995). Solving social-behavioral problems through the use of visually supported communication. In K. A. Quill (Ed.), Teaching children with autism: Strategies to enhance communication and socialization (pp. 265–286). NY: Delmar Publishers Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Hoyle, R. H. (Ed.). (1995). Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Huemer, S. V. , & Mann, V. (2010). A comprehensive profile of decoding and comprehension in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 40(4), 485–493. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0892-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, C. , & Ensor, R. (2007). Executive function and theory of mind: Predictive relations from ages 2 to 4. Developmental Psychology , 43, 1447–1459. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1447
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, C. , & Leekam, S. (2004). What are the links between theory of mind and social relations? Review, reflections and new directions for studies of typical and atypical development. Social Development , 13, 590–619. doi:10.1111/sode.2004.13.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchins, T. , Prelock, P. A. , & Chace, W. (2008). Test-retest reliability of theory of mind tasks representing a range of content and complexity and adapted to facilitate the performance of children with ASD. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities , 23(4), 195–206. doi:10.1177/1088357608322998
   Google Scholar
• Jose, P. E. (2013). Methodology in the social sciences. Doing statistical mediation and moderation . New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kaland, N. , Callesen, K. , Møller-Nielsen, A. , Mortensen, E. L. , & Smith, L. (2008). Performance of children and adolescents with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism on advanced theory of mind tasks. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 38(6), 1112–1123. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0496-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Y . (2015). Language and cognitive predictors of text comprehension: Evidence from multivariate analysis.child development. 86(1), 128–144. doi:10.1111/cdev.12293
   Google Scholar
• Kim, Y.-S. G . (2017). Why the simple view of reading is not simplistic: Unpacking component skills of reading using a direct and indirect effect model of reading (DIER). Scientific Studies of Reading, 0(0), 1–24. doi:10.1080/10888438.2017
   Google Scholar
• Kimhi, Y. (2014). Theory of mind abilities and deficits in autism spectrum disorders. Topics in Language Disorders , 34(4), 329–343. doi:10.1097/TLD.0000000000000033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kintsch, W. (1988). The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction-integration model. Psychological Review , 95(2), 163–182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leslie, A. M. , & Frith, U. (1988). Autistic children’s understanding of seeing, knowing, and believing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 6, 315–324. doi:10.1111/bjdp.1988.6.issue-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lind, S. E. , & Bowler, D. M. (2009). Language and theory of mind in autism spectrum disorder: The relationship between complement syntax and false belief task performance. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 39, 929–937. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0702-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lind, S. E. , & Bowler, D. M. (2010). Episodic memory and episodic future thinking in adults with autism. Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 119(4), 896–905. doi:10.1037/a0020631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loukusa, S. , & Moilanen, I . (2009). Pragmatic inference abilities in individuals with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. A Review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders , 3(4), 890–904.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, Myes, L. C., Klin, A., Tercyak Jr, K. P., Cicchetti, D. V., & Cohen, D. J . (1996). Test‐retest reliability for false‐belief tasks. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37(3), 313–319. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01408.x
   Google Scholar
• MacKinnon, D. P. , Lockwood, C. M. , & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence Limits for the Indirect Effect: Distribution of the Product and Resampling Methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research , 39(1), 99–128. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mar, R. A. (2011). The neural bases of social cognition and story comprehension. Annual Review of Psychology , 62, 103–134. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayes, S. D. , & Calhoun, S. L. (2008). WISC-IV and WIAT-II profiles in children with high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 38(3), 428–439. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0410-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride, C. A. (2016). Is Chinese special? Four aspects of Chinese literacy acquisition that might distinguish learning Chinese from learning alphabetic orthographies. Educational Psychology Review , 28(3), 523–549. doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9318-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCormick, S. (1992). Disabled readers’ erroneous responses to inferential comprehension questions: Description and analyses. Reading Research Quarterly , 27(1), 54–77. doi:10.2307/747833
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPartland, J. C. , Reichow, B. , & Volkmar, F. R. (2012). Sensitivity and specificity of proposed DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 51(4), 368–383. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.01.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myles, B. S. , Hilgenfeld, T. D. , & Barnhill, G. P . et al. (2002). Analysis of reading skills in individuals with asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(1): 44–47.
   Google Scholar
• Nation, K . (2005). Connections between language and reading. In H. W. Catts & A. G. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 41–54). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Nation, K. , Clarke, P. , Wright, B. , & Williams, C. (2006). Patterns of reading ability in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 36, 911–919. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0130-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newman, T. M. , Macomber, D. , Naples, A. J. , Babitz, T. , Volkmar, F. , & Grigorenko, E. L. (2007). Hyperlexia in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 37(4), 760–774. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0206-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ng, S. K. (2015). From oral vocabulary to text reading comprehension: The role of working memory (Unpublished dissertation). Hong Kong, China: The University of Hong Kong.
   Google Scholar
• Norbury, C. , & Nation, K . (2011). Understanding variability in reading comprehension in adoescents with autism spectrum disorders: Interactions with language status and decoding skill. Scientific Studies of Reading , 15(3), 191 –210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellicano, E. (2010). Individual differences in executive function and central coherence predict developmental changes in theory of mind in autism. Developmental Psychology , 46, 530–544. doi:10.1037/a0018287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellicano, E. (2013). Testing the predictive power of cognitive atypicalities in autistic children: Evidence from a 3-year follow-up study. Autism Research , 6, 258–267. doi:10.1002/aur.2013.6.issue-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellicano, E. , & Stears, M. (2011). Bridging autism, science and society: Moving towards an ethically-informed approach to autism research. Autism Research , 4, 271–282. doi:10.1002/aur.201
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perfetti, C. A. , Landi, N. , & Oakhill, J. (2005). The acquisition of reading comprehension skill. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), Blackwell handbooks of developmental psychology. The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 227–247). Malden : Blackwell Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson, C. C. , Wellman, H. M. , & Liu, D. (2005). Steps in theory‐of‐mind development for children with deafness or autism. Child Development , 76(2), 502–517. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00859.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, C. C. , Wellman, H. M. , & Slaughter, V . (2012). The mind behind the message: Advancing theory‐of‐mind scales for typically developing children, and those with deafness, autism, or asperger syndrome. Child Development , 83(2), 469–485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettit, N. T. , & Cockriel, I. W. (1974). A factor study of the literal reading comprehension test and the inferential reading comprehension test. Journal of Reading Behavior , 6(1), 63–75. doi:10.1080/10862967409547078
   Google Scholar
• Randi, J. , Newman, T. , & Grigorenko, E. L. (2010). Teaching children with autism to read for meaning: Challenges and possibilities. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorder , 40(7), 890–902. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0938-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2019). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.  Retrieved from https://www.r-project.org
   Google Scholar
• Ricketts, J. , Jones, C. R. G. , Happé, F. , & Charman, T. (2013). Reading comprehension in autism spectrum disorders: The role of oral language and social functioning. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 43(4), 807–816. doi:10.1007/s1080301216194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosseel, Y . (2012). lavaan : An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software , 48(2), 1 –36. Retrieved from http://www.jstatsoft.org/v48/i02/
   Google Scholar
• Snowling, M. J. , Stothard, S. E. , Clarke, P. , Bowyer-Crane, C. , Harrington, A. , Truelove, E. , & Hulme, C. (2009). York assessment of reading for comprehension. London: GL Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Solari, E. J. , Grimm, R. , McIntyre, N. S. , Swain-Lerro, L. , Zajic, M. , & Mundy, P. C. (2017). The relation between text reading fluency and reading comprehension for students with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders , 41–42, 8–19. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2017.07.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sourn-Bissaoui, S. L. , Caillies, S. , Gierski, F. , & Motte, J. (2009). Inference processing in adolescents with Asperger syndrome: Relationship with theory of mind abilities. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders , 3, 797–808. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2009.03.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong, X. , McBride-Chang, C. , Shu, H. , & Wong, A. M.-Y. (2009). Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading , 13(5), 426–452. doi:10.1080/10888430903162910
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valle, A. , Massaro, D. , Castelli, I. , & Marchetti, A . (2015). Theory of mind development in adolescence and early adulthood: The growing complexity of recursive thinking ability. Europe's Journal of Psychology , 11(1), 112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler memory scale ± revised . San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2011). WASI-II: Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence–Second edition (WASI-II) . San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Wellman, H. M. , & Liu, D . (2004). Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks. Child Development, 75(2), 523–541. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x
   Google Scholar
• Whitby, P. J. S. , & Mancil, G. R. (2009). Academic achievement profiles of children with high functioning autism and Asperger syndrome: A review of the literature. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities , 44(4), 551–560.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, S. , Hill, E. , Happé, F. , & Frith, U. (2009). Revisiting the strange stories: Revealing mentalizing impairments in autism. Child Development , 80(4), 1097–1117. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01319.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, P. , Carnahan, C. R. , & Jacobs, J. A . (2012). Reading comprehension profiles of high-functioning students on the autism spectrum: a grounded theory. Exceptional Children , 78(4), 449 –469.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, V. C. N. , Fung, C. W. , Lee, S. L. , & Wong, P. T. Y. (2015). Review of evolution of clinical, training and educational services and research program for autism spectrum disorders in Hong Kong. Science China Life Sciences , 58(10), 991–1009. doi:10.1007/s11427-012-4294-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, V. C. N. , & Hui, S. L. H. (2008). Epidemiological study of autism spectrum disorder in China. Journal of Child Neurology , 23(1), 67–72. doi:10.1177/0883073807308702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, W. Y. (2016). Understanding Chinese high-functioning autistic children: The simple “Mind” of reading (Unpublished dissertation). Hong Kong, China: The University of Hong Kong.
   Google Scholar