The Impact of Character Complexity on Chinese Literacy: A Generalized Additive Modeling Approach

References

• Altani, A., Georgiou, G. K., Deng, C., Cho, J.-R., Katopodi, K., Wei, W., & Protopapas, A. (2017). Is processing of symbols and words influenced by writing system? Evidence from Chinese, Korean, English, and Greek. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 164, 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.07.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arachchillage, D. K. M. (2018). The role of akshara knowledge and phonological processing skills in reading development among Sri Lankan children [ Doctoral dissertation, University of Alberta]. Education and Research Archive. https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/2ae946b0-38c1-499e-a4c8-415381abdc2e/download/a53d9a9b-295c-4772-99b2-13368f70827c
   Google Scholar
• Araújo, S., Reis, A., Petersson, K. M., & Faísca, L. (2015). Rapid automatized naming and reading performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 868–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baayen, R. H., Davidson, D. J., & Bates, D. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59(4), 390–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.12.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baayen, H., Vasishth, S., Kliegl, R., & Bates, D. (2017). The cave of shadows: Addressing the human factor with generalized additive mixed models. Journal of Memory and Language, 94, 206–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2016.11.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowers, P. G., Sunseth, K., & Golden, J. (1999). The route between rapid naming and reading progress. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3(1), 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0301_2
   Google Scholar
• Bowles, R. P., Pentimonti, J. M., Gerde, H. K., & Montroy, J. J. (2014). Item response analysis of uppercase and lowercase letter name knowledge. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 32(2), 146–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282913490266
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brysbaert, M., & Stevens, M. (2018). Power analysis and effect size in mixed effects models: A tutorial. Journal of Cognition, 1(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.10
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang, L.-Y., Chen, Y.-C., & Perfetti, C. A. (2018). GraphCom: A multidimensional measure of graphic complexity applied to 131 written languages. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 427–449. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0881-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, L.-Y., & Perfetti, C. A. (2018). Visual factors in writing system variation: Measurement and implications for reading. In H. K. Pae (Ed.), Writing systems, reading processes, and cross-linguistic influences: Reflections from the Chinese, Japanese and Korean languages (Vol. 7, pp. 49–72). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/bpa.7.03cha
   Google Scholar
• Chang, L.-Y., Plaut, D. C., & Perfetti, C. A. (2016). Visual complexity in orthographic learning: Modeling learning across writing system variations. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(1), 64–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1104688
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denckla, M. B., & Cutting, L. E. (1999). History and significance of rapid automatized naming. Annals of Dyslexia, 49(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-999-0018-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenhauer, S., Gagl, B., & Fiebach, C. J. (2022). Predictive pre‐activation of orthographic and lexical‐semantic representations facilitates visual word recognition. Psychophysiology, 59(3), e13970. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13970
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flora, D. B. (2020). Your coefficient alpha is probably wrong, but which coefficient omega is right? A tutorial on using R to obtain better reliability estimates. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 3(4), 484–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245920951747
   Google Scholar
• Friedman, L., & Wall, M. (2005). Graphical views of suppression and multicollinearity in multiple linear regression. American Statistician, 59(2), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1198/000313005X41337
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Aro, M., Liao, C.-H., & Parrila, R. (2016). Modeling the relationship between rapid automatized naming and literacy skills across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 143(C), 48–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.10.017
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Georgiou, G. K., Cardoso-Martins, C., Das, J. P., Falcón, A., Hosokawa, M., Inoue, T., Li, Y., Martinez, D., Padakannaya, P., Parrila, R., Pollo, T. C., Salha, S. S., Samantaray, S., Shu, H., Tanji, T., Tibi, S., & Vieira, A. P. A. (2022). Cross-language contributions of rapid automatized naming to reading accuracy and fluency in young adults: Evidence from eight languages representing different writing systems. Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 6(2), 151–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-021-00092-7
   Google Scholar
• Han, S. J., Kelly, P., Winters, J., & Kemp, C. (2022). Simplification is not dominant in the evolution of Chinese characters. Open Mind, 6, 264–279.
   Google Scholar
• Ho, C. S. H., Chan, D. W. O., Tsang, S. M., & Lee, L. H. (2000). The Hong Kong test of specific learning disabilities in reading and writing (HKT-SpLD). The Chinese University of Hong Kong and Education Department, HKSAR Government.
   Google Scholar
• Hong Kong Education Bureau. (2009). Zhongying duizhao xianggang xuexiao zhongwen xuexi jichu zici [Lexical items with English explanations for fundamental Chinese learning in Hong Kong schools]. Chinese Language Education Section, Curriculum Development Institute, Education Bureau, The Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. https://www.edbchinese.hk/lexlist_en/
   Google Scholar
• Inoue, T., Georgiou, G. K., Muroya, N., Maekawa, H., & Parrila, R. (2017). Cognitive predictors of literacy acquisition in syllabic hiragana and morphographic kanji. Reading & Writing, 30(6), 1335–1360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9726-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue, T., Zheng, M., Lui, K. F.-H., McBride, C., & Ho, C. S.-H. (2023). Early literacy acquisition across logographic orthographies: Evidence from a cross-linguistic study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 63, 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.11.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kail, R., & Hall, L. K. (1994). Processing speed, naming speed, and reading. Developmental Psychology, 30(6), 949–954. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.6.949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, L., & Frost, R. (1992). The reading process is different for different orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. Advances in Psychology, 94, 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62789-2
   Google Scholar
• Ku, Y.-M., & Anderson, R. C. (2003). Development of morphological awareness in Chinese and English. Reading & Writing, 16(5), 399–422. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024227231216
   Google Scholar
• Lee, J. W., Wolters, A., & Grace Kim, Y.-S. (2022). The relations of morphological awareness with language and literacy skills vary depending on orthographic depth and nature of morphological awareness. Review of Educational Research, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543221123816
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, D., Mo, J., Liu, Y., & Li, H. (2019). Developmental changes in the relationship between character reading ability and orthographic awareness in Chinese. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(2397), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02397
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li, H., Shu, H., McBride Chang, C., Liu, H., & Peng, H. (2012). Chinese children’s character recognition: Visuo-orthographic, phonological processing and morphological skills. Journal of Research in Reading, 35(3), 287–307. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01460.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride, C. A. (2016). Is Chinese special? Four aspects of Chinese literacy acquisition that might distinguish learning Chinese from learning alphabetic orthographies. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 523–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9318-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride–Chang, C., Cho, J.-R., Liu, H., Wagner, R. K., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Cheuk, C. S.-M., & Muse, A. (2005). Changing models across cultures: Associations of phonological awareness and morphological structure awareness with vocabulary and word recognition in second graders from Beijing, Hong Kong, Korea, and the United States. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 92(2), 140–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2005.03.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride–Chang, C., Chow, B. W. Y., Zhong, Y., Burgess, S., & Hayward, W. G. (2005). Chinese character acquisition and visual skills in two Chinese scripts. Reading & Writing, 18(2), 99–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-004-7343-5
   Google Scholar
• McBride–Chang, C., & Ho, C. S.-H. (2000). Developmental issues in Chinese children’s character acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 50–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.1.50
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride–Chang, C., & Kail, R. V. (2002). Cross–cultural similarities in the predictors of reading acquisition. Child Development, 73(5), 1392–1407. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00479
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride–Chang, C., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Wat, C. P., & Wagner, R. K. (2003). Morphological awareness uniquely predicts young children’s Chinese character recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 743–751. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.743
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride–Chang, C., Zhou, Y., Cho, J.-R., Aram, D., Levin, I., & Tolchinsky, L. (2011). Visual spatial skill: A consequence of learning to read? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(2), 256–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McBride, C., Pan, D. J., & Mohseni, F. (2022). Reading and writing words: A cross-linguistic perspective. Scientific Studies of Reading, 26(2), 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.1920595
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melby-Lervåg, M., Lyster, S.-A. H., & Hulme, C. (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 322–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026744
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miles, J. (2014). Tolerance and variance inflation factor. In N. Balakrishnan, T. Colton, B. Everitt, W. Piegorsch, F. Ruggeri, & J. L. Teugels (Eds.), StatsRef: Statistics reference online. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118445112.stat06593
   Google Scholar
• Miton, H., & Morin, O. (2021). Graphic complexity in writing systems. Cognition, 214, 104771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nag, S., Snowling, M., Quinlan, P., & Hulme, C. (2014). Child and symbol factors in learning to read a visually complex writing system. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(5), 309–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2014.892489
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padakannaya, P., Pandey, A., Saligram, D., & Rao, S. R. (2015). Visual-orthographic complexity of Akshara and eye movements in reading: A study in Kannada alphasyllabary. Writing Systems Research, 8(1), 32–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/17586801.2015.1071235
   Google Scholar
• Pan, J., Cui, X., McBride, C., & Shu, H. (2020). An investigation of the bidirectional relations of word reading to timed visual tasks involving different levels of phonological processing in Chinese. Scientific Studies of Reading, 24(4), 275–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1663857
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen, E. J., Miller, D. L., Simpson, G. L., & Ross, N. (2019). Hierarchical generalized additive models in ecology: An introduction with mgcv. PeerJ, 7, e6876. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6876
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelli, D. G., Burns, C. W., Farell, B., & Moore-Page, D. C. (2006). Feature detection and letter identification. Vision Research, 46(28), 4646–4674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2006.04.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perfetti, C., Cao, F., & Booth, J. (2013). Specialization and universals in the development of reading skill: How Chinese research informs a universal science of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2012.689786
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raven, J. (2000). The Raven’s progressive matrices: Change and stability over culture and time. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0735
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R Core Team. (2022). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/
   Google Scholar
• Reichle, E. D., & Yu, L. (2017). Models of Chinese reading: Review and analysis. Cognitive Science, 42, 1154–1165. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Revelle, W., & Revelle, M. W. (2015). Package ‘psych’. the comprehensive R archive network. https://cran.rstudio.org/web/packages/psych/psych.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Rosseel, Y. (2014). The lavaan tutorial. Department of Data Analysis. Ghent University. https://lavaan.ugent.be/tutorial/tutorial.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Royston, P., Altman, D. G., & Sauerbrei, W. (2006). Dichotomizing continuous predictors in multiple regression: A bad idea. Statistics in Medicine, 25(1), 127–141. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.2331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruan, Y., Georgiou, G. K., Song, S., Li, Y., & Shu, H. (2018). Does writing system influence the associations between phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and reading? A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(2), 180–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000216
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruan, Y., Ye, Y., Lui, K. F. H., McBride, C., & Ho, C. S. H. (2022). How do word reading and word spelling develop over time? A three‐year longitudinal study of Hong Kong Chinese–English bilingual children. Reading Research Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.478
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson, G. L. (2018). Modelling palaeoecological time series using generalised additive models. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 6(149), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2018.00149
   Google Scholar
• Song, S., Georgiou, G. K., Su, M., & Hua, S. (2016). How well do phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming correlate with Chinese reading accuracy and fluency? A meta-analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(2), 99–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2015.1088543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamaoka, K. (1991). Psycholinguistic nature of the Japanese orthography. Studies in Language and Literature, 11(1), 49–82. https://www.tamaoka.org/en/scholarly/sadokunasi/1991/00
   Google Scholar
• Tibi, S., Edwards, A. A., Kim, Y.-S. G., Schatschneider, C., & Boudelaa, S. (2022). The contributions of letter features to Arabic letter knowledge for Arabic-speaking kindergartners. Scientific Studies of Reading, 26(5), 357–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.2016769
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., & Wong, A. M.-Y. (2009). Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(5), 426–452. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430903162910
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treiman, R., & Kessler, B. (2011). Similarities among the shapes of writing and their effects on learning. Written Language and Literacy, 14(1), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1075/wll.14.1.03tre
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Verhoeven, L., & Perfetti, C. (2022). Universals in learning to read across languages and writing systems. Scientific Studies of Reading, 26(2), 150–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.1938575
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, L., Wang, J., Liu, D., & Lin, D. (2021). The role of cognitive awareness and character properties in early Chinese reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 210(105185), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105185
   Google Scholar
• Wijaythilake, M. A. D. K., Parrila, R., Inoue, T., & Nag, S. (2018). Instruction matters to the development of phoneme awareness and its relationship to akshara knowledge and word reading: Evidence from Sinhala. Scientific Studies of Reading, 22(5), 420–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2018.1466890
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wijaythilake, M. A. D. K., Parrila, R., Inoue, T., & Nag, S. (2019). Cognitive predictors of word reading in Sinhala. Reading & Writing, 32(7), 1881–1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9927-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, S. W. L., Cheung, H., Zheng, M., Yang, X., McBride, C., Ho, C. S., Leung, J. S., Chow, B. W., & Waye, M. M. Y. (2020). Effect of twinning on Chinese and English vocabulary knowledge. Child Development, 91(6), 1886–1897. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, S. N. (2012). On p-values for smooth components of an extended generalized additive model. Biometrika, 100(1), 221–228. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/ass048
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, S. N. (2017). In Generalized additive models: An introduction with R (2nd). CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315370279
   Google Scholar
• Wood, S., & Wood, M. S. (2015). Package ‘mgcv’. R Package Version, 1(29), 729. https://cran.uib.no/web/packages/mgcv/mgcv.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Wu, X., Anderson, R. C., Li, W., Wu, X., Li, H., Zhang, J., Zheng, Q., Zhu, J., Shu, H., Jiang, W., Chen, X., Wang, Q., Yin, L., He, Y., Packard, J., & Gaffney, J. S. (2009). Morphological awareness and Chinese children’s literacy development: An intervention study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(1), 26–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430802631734
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, X., Pan, D. J., Lo, C. M., & McBride, C. (2022). Same or different: Chinese character reading and word reading of young readers with development. Reading & Writing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10255-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, R., & Wang, W. S. Y. (2018). Categorical perception of Chinese characters by simplified and traditional Chinese readers. Reading & Writing, 31(5), 1133–1154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9832-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeung, P., Ho, C., Wong, Y., Chan, D., Chung, K., & Lo, L. (2013). Longitudinal predictors of Chinese word reading and spelling among elementary grade students. Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(6), 1245–1277. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716412000239
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye, Y., Yan, M., Ruan, Y., McBride, C., & Yeung, C. F. (2021). Literacy learning in early Chinese-English bilinguals: The role of pure copying skill. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 55, 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.12.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, Y.-L., McBride-Chang, C., Fong, C. Y. C., Wong, T. T. Y., & Cheung, S. K. (2012). A comparison of phonological awareness, lexical compounding, and homophone training for Chinese word reading in Hong Kong kindergartners. Early Education & Development, 23(4), 475–492. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2010.530478
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar