Dyslexia Polygenic Scores Show Heightened Prediction of Verbal Working Memory and Arithmetic

References

• Alarcón, M., & DeFries, J. C. (1997). Reading performance and general cognitive ability in twins with reading difficulties and control pairs. Personality and Individual Differences, 22(6), 793–803. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00267-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreola, C., Mascheretti, S., Belotti, R., Ogliari, A., Marino, C., Battaglia, M., & Scaini, S. (2021). The heritability of reading and reading-related neurocogni- tive components: A multi-level meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 121, 175–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, T. C., Castles, A., Coltheart, M., Gillespie, N., Wright, M., & Martin, N. G. (2004). Behaviour genetic analyses of reading and spelling: A component processes approach. Australian Journal of Psychology, 56(2), 115–126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2008, June). Fitting mixed-effects models using the lme4 package in R. International Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Durham, New Hampshire, USA.
   Google Scholar
• Beidas, H., Khateb, A., & Breznitz, Z. (2013). The cognitive profile of adult dyslexics and its relation to their reading abilities. Reading and Writing, 26(9), 1487–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9428-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Intelligence, creativity, and cognitive control: The common and differential involvement of executive functions in intelligence and creativity. Intelligence, 46, 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Methodological), 57(1), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Betjemann, R. S., Willcutt, E. G., Olson, R. K., Keenan, J. M., DeFries, J. C., & Wadsworth, S. J. (2008). Word reading and reading comprehension: Stability, overlap and independence. Reading and Writing, 21(5), 539–558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-007-9076-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonifacci, P., & Snowling, M. J. (2008). Speed of processing and reading disability: A cross-linguistic investigation of dyslexia and borderline intellectual functioning. Cognition, 107(3), 999–1017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.12.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, B., Olson, R. K., Samuelsson, S., Wadsworth, S., Corley, R., DeFries, J. C., & Willcutt, E. (2006). Genetic and environmental influences on early literacy. Journal of Research in Reading, 29(1), 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2006.00291.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callens, M., Tops, W., Brysbaert, M., & Paterson, K. (2012). Cognitive profile of students who enter higher education with an indication of dyslexia. PLOS ONE, 7(6), e38081. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038081
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christopher, M. E., Keenan, J. M., Hulslander, J., DeFries, J. C., Miyake, A., Wadsworth, S. J. & Olson, R. K. (2016). The genetic and environmental etiologies of the relations between cognitive skills and components of reading ability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(4), 451. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Court, M. H. (2007). A pharmacogenomics primer. The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 47(9), 1087–1103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091270007303768
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale, P. S., Harlaar, N., & Plomin, R. (2005). Telephone testing and teacher assessment of reading skills in 7-year-olds: I. substantial correspondence for a sample of 5544 children and for extremes. Reading and Writing, 18(5), 385–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-004-8130-z
   Google Scholar
• D’Angiulli, A., & Siegel, L. S. (2003). Cognitive functioning as measured by the WISC-R: Do children with learning disabilities have distinctive patterns of performance? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194030360010601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daucourt, M. C., Erbeli, F., Little, C. W., Haughbrook, R., & Hart, S. A. (2020). A meta-analytical review of the genetic and environmental correlations between reading and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and reading and math. Scientific Studies of Reading, 24(1), 23–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1631827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Jonge, P., & De Jong, P. F. (1996). Working memory, intelligence and reading ability in children. Personality and Individual Differences, 21(6), 1007–1020. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00161-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doust, C., Fontanillas, P., Eising, E., Gordon, S. D., Wang, Z., Alagöz, G., Molz, B., Aslibekyan, S., Auton, A., Babalola, E., Bell, R. K., Bielenberg, J., Bryc, K., Bullis, E., Coker, D., Partida, G. C., Dhamija, D., Das, S., Elson, S. L., & Fisher, S. E.… Luciano, M. (2022). Discovery of 42 genome-wide significant loci associated with dyslexia. Nature Genetics, 54(11), 1621–1629. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-022-01192-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, S. E., & DeFries, J. C. (2002). Developmental dyslexia: Genetic dissection of a complex cognitive trait. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(10), 767–780. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn936
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friend, A., Pennington, B. F., Smith, S. D., & Gilger, J. W. (2013). Dyslexia and related communication disorders. In D. Rimoin, R. Pyeritz & B. Korf (Eds.), Emery and rimoin’s principles and practice of medical genetics (pp. 1–22). Elsevier Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Gavril, L., Roșan, A., & Szamosközi, Ș. (2021). The role of visual-spatial attention in reading development: A meta-analysis. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 38(6), 387–407. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643294.2022.2043839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gialluisi, A., Andlauer, T. F., Mirza-Schreiber, N., Moll, K., Becker, J., Hoffmann, P., Czamara, D., Pourcain, B. S., Honbolygó, F., Tóth, D., Csépe, V., Huguet, G., Chaix, Y., Iannuzzi, S., Demonet, J.-F., Morris, A. P., Hulslander, J., Willcutt, E. G., DeFries, J. C., & Müller-Myhsok, B.… Ludwig, K. U. (2021). Genome-wide association study reveals new insights into the heritability and genetic correlates of developmental dyslexia. Molecular Psychiatry, 26(7), 3004–3017. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-00898-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gooch, D., Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2012). Reaction time variability in children with ADHD symptoms and/or dyslexia. Developmental Neuropsychology, 37(5), 453–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2011.650809
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimm, K. J. (2008). Longitudinal associations between reading and mathematics achievement. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 410–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640801982486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansell, N. K., Wright, M. J., Geffen, G. M., Geffen, L. B., Smith, G. A., & Martin, N. G. (2001). Genetic influence on ERP slow wave measures of working memory. Behavior Genetics, 31(6), 603–614. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013301629521
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harlaar, N., Spinath, F. M., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2005). Genetic influences on early word recognition abilities and disabilities: A study of 7-year-old twins. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(4), 373–384. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00358.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatcher, J., Snowling, M. J., & Griffiths, Y. M. (2002). Cognitive assessment of dyslexic students in higher education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(1), 119–133. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709902158801
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawke, J. L., Wadsworth, S. J., & DeFries, J. C. (2006). Genetic influences on reading difficulties in boys and girls: The Colorado twin study. Dyslexia, 12(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haworth, C. M., Kovas, Y., Harlaar, N., Hayiou‐Thomas, M. E., Petrill, S. A., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2009). Generalist genes and learning disabilities: A multivariate genetic analysis of low performance in reading, mathematics, language and general cognitive ability in a sample of 8000 12‐year‐old twins. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(10), 1318–1325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02114.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, D. N. (1984). MAB, multidimensional aptitude battery: Manual. Research Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs, K. E., & Costello, S. (2013). An initial investigation of an Australian adaptation of the multidimensional aptitude battery—II. The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 30(1), 84–102. https://doi.org/10.1017/edp.2013.9
   Google Scholar
• Juhel, J. (1991). Relationships between psychometric intelligence and information-processing speed indexes. European Bulletin of Cognitive Psychology, 11(1), 73–105.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufman, A. S., Raiford, S. E., & Coalson, D. L. (2015). Intelligent testing with the WISC-V. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Knopik, V. S., Alarcón, M., & DeFries, J. C. (1997). Comorbidity of mathematics and reading deficits: Evidence for a genetic etiology. Behavior Genetics, 27(5), 447–453. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025622400239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kranzler, J. H. (1994). Application of the techniques of mental chronometry to the study of learning disabilities. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(6), 853–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90229-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kremen, W. S., Jacobsen, K. C., Xian, H., Eisen, S. A., Eaves, L. J., Tsuang, M. T., & Lyons, M. J. (2007). Genetics of verbal working memory processes: A twin study of middle-aged men. Neuropsychology, 21(5), 569–580. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.21.5.569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kudo, M. F., Lussier, C. M., & Swanson, H. L. (2015). Reading disabilities in children: A selective meta-analysis of the cognitive literature. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 40, 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.01.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laasonen, M., Leppämäki, S., Tani, P., & Hokkanen, L. (2009). Adult dyslexia and attention deficit disorder in Finland—project DyAdd: WAIS-III cognitive profiles. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(6), 511–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409345013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazaroo, N. K., Bates, T. C., Hansell, N. K., Wright, M. J., Martin, N. G., & Luciano, M. (2019). Genetic structure of iq, phonemic decoding skill, and academic achievement. Frontiers in Genetics, 10, 195. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Light, J. G., & DeFries, J. C. (1995). Comorbidity of reading and mathematics disabilities: Genetic and environmental etiologies. Journal of Learning Disabil- Ities, 28(2), 96–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949502800204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Light, J. G., Defries, J. C., & Olson, R. K. (1998). Multivariate behavioral genetic analysis of achievement and cognitive measures in reading-disabled and control twin pairs. Human Biology, 70(2), 215–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loehlin, J. C., Hansell, N. K., Wright, M. J., & Martin, N. G. (2016). Genetic and environmental contributions to cognitive structure in Australian twins: A reappraisal. Intelligence, 59, 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.05.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luciano, M., Evans, D. M., Hansell, N. K., Medland, S. E., Montgomery, G. W., Martin, N. G., Wright, M. J., & Bates, T. C. (2013). A genome‐wide association study for reading and language abilities in two population cohorts. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 12(6), 645–652. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luciano, M., Smith, G. A., Wright, M. J., Geffen, G. M., Geffen, L. B., & Martin, N. G. (2001). On the heritability of inspection time and its covariance with IQ: A twin study. Intelligence, 29(6), 443–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00071-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luciano, M., Wright, M. J., Geffen, G. M., Geffen, L. B., Smith, G. A., Evans, D. M., & Martin, N. G. (2003). A genetic two-factor model of the covariation among a subset of multidimensional aptitude battery and Wechsler adult intelligence scale—revised subtests. Intelligence, 31(6), 589–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(03)00057-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luciano, M., Wright, M. J., Smith, G. A., Geffen, G. M., Geffen, L. B., & Martin, N. G. (2001). Genetic covariance among measures of information processing speed, working memory, and IQ. Behavior Genetics, 31(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013397428612
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majeed, N. M., Hartanto, A., & Tan, J. J. (2021). Developmental dyslexia and creativity: A meta‐analysis. Dyslexia, 27(2), 187–203. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markowitz, E. M., Willemsen, G., Trumbetta, S. L., van Beijsterveldt, T. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2005). The etiology of mathematical and reading (dis) ability covariation in a sample of Dutch twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 8(6), 585–593. https://doi.org/10.1375/twin.8.6.585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matters, G., & Gray, K. (1995). The queensland core skills test: Implications for the mathematical sciences. [Abridged Paper Presented to the National Conference on Assessment in the Mathematical Sciences (2nd: 1993).]. Unicorn (Carlton, Vic), 21(4), 74–89.
   Google Scholar
• McLean, G. M., Stuart, G. W., Coltheart, V., & Castles, A. (2011). Visual temporal processing in dyslexia and the magnocellular deficit theory: The need for speed? Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception and Performance, 37(6). https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moura, O., Simoes, M. R., & Pereira, M. (2014). WISC‐III cognitive profiles in children with developmental dyslexia: Specific cognitive disability and diagnostic utility. Dyslexia, 20(1), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (1994). Reaction times and dyslexia. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 47(1), 29–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/14640749408401142
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pham, A. V., & Hasson, R. M. (2014). Verbal and visuospatial working memory as predictors of children’s reading ability. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(5), 467–477. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acu024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Queensland Studies Authority. (2008). Student education profiles: Preparation, distribution, appeals. Available at: https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/downloads/publications/qsa_stats_sep_report_07.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Raskind, W. H., Peter, B., Richards, T., Eckert, M. M., & Berninger, V. W. (2013). The genetics of reading disabilities: From phenotypes to candidate genes. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 601. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritchie, S. J., Luciano, M., Hansell, N. K., Wright, M. J., & Bates, T. C. (2013). The relationship of reading ability to creativity: Positive, not negative associations. Learning and Individual Differences, 26, 171–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.02.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubinsten, O. (2009). Co-occurrence of developmental disorders: The case of developmental dyscalculia. Cognitive Development, 24(4), 362–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.09.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah, P., & Miyake, A. (1996). The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125(1), 4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, K., Doré, V., Rose, S., Fripp, J., McMahon, K. L., De Zubicaray, G. I. & Salvado, O. (2015, March). Heritability analysis of surface-based cortical thickness estimation on a large twin cohort. In S. Ourselin & M. A. Styner (Eds.), Medical Imaging 2015: Image Processing (Vol. 9413, pp. 523–530). SPIE.
   Google Scholar
• Sobotka, K. R., & May, J. G. (1977). Visual evoked potentials and reaction time in normal and dyslexic children. Psychophysiology, 14(1), 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1977.tb01147.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soriano, M., & Miranda, A. (2010). Developmental dyslexia in a transparent orthography: A study of Spanish dyslexic children. In T. E. Scruggs & M. A. Mastropieri (Ed.), Literacy and learning (pp. 95–114). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
   Google Scholar
• Stevenson, J. (1991). Which aspects of processing text mediate genetic effects? In B. F. Pennington (Ed.), Reading disabilities (pp. 61–81). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Stevenson, J., Graham, P., Fredman, G., & Mcloughli, V. (1987). A twin study of genetic influences on reading and spelling ability and disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28(2), 229–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1987.tb00207.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, H. L. (2012). Adults with reading disabilities: Converting a meta-analysis to practice. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(1), 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411426856
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, H. L., & Hsieh, C. J. (2009). Reading disabilities in adults: A selective meta-analysis of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 79(4), 1362–1390. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654309350931
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, H. L., & O’Connor, R. (2009). The role of working memory and fluency practice on the reading comprehension of students who are dysfluent readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(6), 548–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, H. L., Zheng, X., & Jerman, O. (2009). Working memory, short-term memory, and reading disabilities: A selective meta-analysis of the literature. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(3), 260–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219409331958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobia, V., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2014). Cognitive profiles of Italian children with developmental dyslexia. Reading Research Quarterly, 49(4), 437–452. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.77
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Bergen, E., de Zeeuw, E., Hart, S., Boomsma, D., de Geus, E., & Kan, K. J. (2023). Comorbidity and causality among ADHD, dyslexia, and dyscalculia. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/epzgy
   Google Scholar
• Wainwright, M., Wright, M. J., Geffen, G. M., Geffen, L. B., Luciano, M., & Martin, N. G. (2004). Genetic and environmental sources of covariance between reading tests used in neuropsychological assessment and IQ subtests. Behavior Genetics, 34(4), 365–376. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BEGE.0000023642.34853.cb
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (1981). WAIS-R manual: Wechsler adult intelligence scale-revised. Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Whyte, J., Curry, C., & Hale, D. (1985). Inspection time and intelligence in dyslexic children. Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines.
   Google Scholar
• Wright, M., De Geus, E., Ando, J., Luciano, M., Posthuma, D., Ono, Y., Hansell, N., Van Baal, C., Hiraishi, K., Hasegawa, T., Smith, G., Geffen, G., Geffen, L., Kanba, S., Miyake, A., Martin, N., & Boomsma, D. (2001). Genetics of cognition: Outline of a collaborative twin study. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 4(1), 48–56. https://doi.org/10.1375/twin.4.1.48
   Google Scholar
• Wright, M. J., & Martin, N. G. (2004). Brisbane adolescent twin study: Outline of study methods and research projects. Australian Journal of Psychology, 56(2), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530410001734865
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar