The Universality of Childhood Emotional Abuse: A Meta-Analysis of Worldwide Prevalence

REFERENCES*

• *Publications marked with an asterisk were included in the meta-analysis.
   Google Scholar
• Aberle , N. , Ratkovic-Blazevic , V. , Mitrovic-Dittrich , D. , Coha , R. , Stoic , A. , Bublic , J. and Boranic , M. 2007 . Emotional and physical abuse in family: Survey among high school adolescents . Croatian Medical Journal , 48 : 240 – 248 . *
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Afifi , Z. E. M. , El-Lawindi , M. I. , Ahmed , S. A. and Basily , W. W. 2003 . Adolescent abuse in a community sample in Beni Suef, Egypt: Prevalence and risk factors . East Mediterranean Health Journal , 9 : 1003 – 1018 . *
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Akyuz , G. , Sar , V. , Kugu , N. and Dogan , O. 2005 . Reported childhood trauma, attempted suicide and self-mutilative behavior among women in the general population . European Psychiatry , 20 : 268 – 273 . * doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.01.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alink , L. , Van IJzendoorn , M. , Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. , Vogels , T. and Euser , S. 2011 . Kindermishandeling 2010 , Leiden, The Netherlands : Casimir .
   Google Scholar
• Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. , Van IJzendoorn , M. H. and Juffer , F. 2003 . Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood . Psychological Bulletin , 129 : 195 – 215 . doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barel , E. , Van IJzendoorn , M. H. , Sagi-Schwartz , A. and Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. 2010 . Surviving the holocaust: A meta-analysis of the long-term sequelae of a genocide . Psychological Bulletin , 136 : 677 – 698 . doi: 10.1037/a0020339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benedict , M. I. , Paine , L. L. , Paine , L. A. , Brandt , D. and Stallings , R. 1999 . The association of childhood sexual abuse with depressive symptoms during pregnancy, and selected pregnancy outcomes . Child Abuse & Neglect , 23 : 659 – 670 . doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(99)00040-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borenstein , M. , Hedges , L. , Higgins , S. and Rothstein , D. 2009 . Introduction to meta-analysis , Chichester , England : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M., Hedges, L., & Rothstein, D. (2007). Meta-analysis: Fixed effect vs. random effects. http://www.meta-analysis.com/downloads/Meta-analysis_fixed_effect_vs_random_effects_sv.pdf (http://www.meta-analysis.com/downloads/Meta-analysis_fixed_effect_vs_random_effects_sv.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Borenstein , M. , Rothstein , D. and Cohen , J. 2005 . Comprehensive meta-analysis: A computer program for research synthesis [Computer software] , Englewood , NJ : Biostat .
   Google Scholar
• Brooker , S. , Cawson , P. , Kelly , G. and Wattam , C. 2001 . The prevalence of child abuse and neglect: A survey of young people . International Journal of Market Research , 43 : 249 – 289 . *
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter , L. L. , Tyrka , A. R. , Ross , N. S. , Khoury , L. , Anderson , G. M. and Price , L. H. 2009 . Effect of childhood emotional abuse and age on cortisol responsivity in adulthood . Biological Psychiatry , 66 : 69 – 75 . doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.02.030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman , D. P. , Whitfield , C. L. , Felitti , V. J. , Dube , S. R. , Edwards , V. J. and Anda , R. F. 2004 . Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood . Journal of Affective Disorders , 82 : 217 – 225 . doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2003.12.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clemmons , J. C. , DiLillo , D. , Martinez , I. G. , DeGue , S. and Jeffcott , M. 2003 . Co-occurring forms of child maltreatment and adult adjustment reported by Latina college students . Child Abuse and Neglect , 27 : 751 – 767 . doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(03)00112-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , R. A. , Paul , R. H. , Stroud , L. , Gunstad , J. , Hitsman , B. L. , Mccaffery , J. … and Gordon , E. 2006 . Early life stress and adult emotional experience: An international perspective . International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine , 36 : 35 – 52 . doi: 10.2190/5R62-9PQY-0NEL-TLPA
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corliss , H. L. , Cochran , S. D. and Mays , V. M. 2002 . Reports of parental maltreatment during childhood in a United States population-based survey of homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual adults . Child Abuse Neglect , 26 : 1165 – 1178 . doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00385-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Courtney , E. A. , Kushwaha , M. and Johnson , J. G. 2008 . Childhood emotional abuse and risk for hopelessness and depressive symptoms during adolescence . Journal of Emotional Abuse , 8 : 281 – 298 . doi: 10.1080/10926790802262572
   Google Scholar
• Creighton , S. J. 2002 . “ Recognising changes in incidence and prevalence ” . In Early prediction and prevention of child abuse: A handbook , Edited by: Browne , K. D. , Hanks , H. , Stratton , P. and Hamilton , C. 5 – 22 . Chichester , England : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Duncan , R. D. 2000 . Childhood maltreatment and college drop-out rates—Implications for child abuse researchers . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 15 : 987 – 995 . doi: 10.1177/088626000015009005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duran , B. , Malcoe , L. H. , Sanders , M. , Waitzkin , H. , Skipper , B. and Yager , J. 2004 . Child maltreatment prevalence and mental disorders outcomes among American Indian women in primary care . Child Abuse & Neglect , 28 : 131 – 145 . doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.06.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duval , S. and Tweedie , R. 2000a . A nonparametric “trim and fill” method of accounting for publication bias in meta-analysis . Journal of the American Statistical Association , 95 : 89 – 98 . doi: 10.2307/2669529
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duval , S. and Tweedie , R. 2000b . Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis . Biometrics , 56 : 455 – 463 . doi: 10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egeland , B. 2009 . Taking stock: Childhood emotional maltreatment and developmental psychopathology . Child Abuse & Neglect , 33 : 22 – 26 . doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.12.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott , K. and Urquiza , A. 2006 . Ethnicity, culture, and child maltreatment . Journal of Social Issues , 62 : 787 – 809 . doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00487.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etain , B. , Mathieu , F. , Henry , C. , Raust , A. , Roy , I. , Germain , A. … and Bellivier , F. 2010 . Preferential association between childhood emotional abuse and bipolar disorder . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 23 : 376 – 383 . doi: 10.1002/jts.20532
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Festinger , T. and Baker , A. 2010 . Prevalence of recalled childhood emotional abuse among child welfare staff and related well-being factors . Children and Youth Services Review , 32 : 520 – 526 . doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.11.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelhor , D. , Ormrod , R. , Turner , H. and Hamby , S. L. 2005 . The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive, national survey . Child Maltreatment , 10 : 5 – 25 . doi: 10.1177/1077559504271287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbody , S. M. , Song , F. J. , Eastwood , A. J. and Sutton , A. 2000 . The causes, consequences and detection of publication bias in psychiatry . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica , 102 : 241 – 249 . doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.102004241.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser , D. 2002 . Emotional abuse and neglect (psychological maltreatment): A conceptual framework . Child Abuse & Neglect , 26 : 697 – 714 . doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00342-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman , J. D. G. and Padayachi , U. K. 2000 . Some methodological problems in estimating incidence and prevalence in child sexual abuse research . The Journal of Sex Research , 37 : 305 – 314 . doi: 10.1080/00224490009552052
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gratz , K. L. , Latzman , R. D. , Tull , M. T. , Reynolds , E. K. and Lejuez , C. W. 2011 . Exploring the association between emotional abuse and childhood borderline personality features: The moderating role of personality traits . Behavior Therapy , 42 : 493 – 508 . doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2010.11.003
   Google Scholar
• Hedges , L. V. and Olkin , I. 1985 . Statistical methods for meta-analysis , Orlando , FL : Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Hofstede , G. 2001 . Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• International Monetary Fund . 2010 . World economic outlook: Spillovers and cycles in the global economy , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Ioannidis , J. 2003 . Genetic associations: False or true? . Trends in Molecular Medicine , 9 : 135 – 138 . doi: 10.1016/S1471-4914(03)00030-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwaniec , D. , Larkin , E. and Higgins , S. 2006 . Research review: Risk and resilience in cases of emotional abuse . Child & Family Social Work , 11 : 73 – 82 . doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00398.x
   Google Scholar
• Jirapramukpitak , T. , Prince , M. and Harpham , T. 2005 . The experience of abuse and mental health in the young Thai population—A preliminary survey . Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology , 40 : 955 – 963 . doi: 10.1007/s00127-005-0983–1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khamis , V. 2000 . Child psychological maltreatment in Palestinian families . Child Abuse and Neglect , 24 : 1047 – 1059 . doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00157-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lansford , J. E. , Malons , P. S. , Dodge , K. A. , Chang , L. , Chaudhary , N. , Tapanya , S. … and Deater-Deckard , K. 2010 . Children's perceptions of maternal hostility as a mediator of the link between discipline and children's adjustment in four countries . International Journal of Behavioral Development , 34 : 452 – 461 . doi: 10.1177/0165025409354933
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , D. and He , L. 2006 . Association study of the G-protein signaling 4 (RGS4) and proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) genes with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis . European Journal of Human Genetics , 14 : 1130 – 1135 . doi: 10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201680
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsey , M. W. and Wilson , D. B. 2001 . Practical meta-analysis , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Madu , S. N. 2001 . Prevalence of child psychological, physical, emotional, and ritualistic abuse among high school students in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa . Psychological Reports , 89 : 431 – 444 . doi: 10.2466/PR0.89.6.431-444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madu , S. N. 2003 . The relationship between parental physical availability and child sexual, physical and emotional abuse: A study among a sample of university students in South Africa . Scandinavian Journal of Psychology , 44 : 311 – 318 . doi: 10.1111/1467-9450.00350
   Google Scholar
• Manly , J. T. , Kim , J. E. , Rogosch , F. A. and Cicchetti , D. 2001 . Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: Contributions of developmental timing and subtype . Development and Psychopathology , 13 : 759 – 782 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• May-Chahal , C. and Cawson , P. 2005 . Measuring child maltreatment in the United Kingdom: A study of the prevalence of child abuse and neglect . Child Abuse and Neglect , 29 : 969 – 984 . doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.05.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menard , C. , Bandeen-Roche , K. J. and Chilcoat , H. D. 2004 . Epidemiology of multiple childhood traumatic events: Child abuse, parental psychopathology, and other family-level stressors . Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology , 39 : 857 – 865 . doi: 10.1007/s00127-004-0868–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meston , C. M. , Heiman , J. R. , Trapnell , P. D. and Carlin , A. S. 1999 . Ethnicity, desirable responding, and self-reports of abuse: A comparison of European- and Asian-ancestry undergraduates . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 67 : 139 – 144 . doi: 10.1037//0022-006X.67.1.139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raiha , N. K. and Soma , D. J. 1997 . Victims of child abuse and neglect in the U.S. Army . Child Abuse and Neglect , 21 : 759 – 768 . doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00037-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggs , S. A. and Kaminski , P. 2010 . Childhood emotional abuse, adult attachment, and depression as predictors of relational adjustment and psychological aggression . Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma , 19 : 75 – 104 . doi: 10.1080/10926770903475976
   Google Scholar
• Scher , C. D. , Forde , D. R. , McQuaid , J. R. and Stein , M. B. 2004 . Prevalence and demographic correlates of childhood maltreatment in an adult community sample . Child Abuse and Neglect , 28 : 167 – 180 . doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.09.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sebre , S. , Sprugevica , I. , Novotni , A. , Bonevski , D. , Pakalniskiene , V. , Popescu , D. … and Lewis , O. 2004 . Cross-cultural comparisons of child-reported emotional and physical abuse: Rates, risk factors and psychosocial symptoms . Child Abuse & Neglect , 28 : 113 – 127 . doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.06.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sedlak , A. J. 2001 . A history of the National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect , Washington , DC : U.S. Department of Health and Human Services .
   Google Scholar
• Sidebotham , P. and Golding , J. 2001 . Child maltreatment in the “children of the nineties”: A longitudinal study of parental risk factors . Child Abuse and Neglect , 25 : 1177 – 1200 . doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00261-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer , N. , Devereux , E. , Wallace , A. , Sundrum , R. , Shenoy , M. , Bacchus , C. and Logan , S. 2005 . Disabling conditions and registration for child abuse and neglect: A population-based study . Pediatrics , 116 : 609 – 613 . doi: 10.1542/peds.2004-1882
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephenson , R. , Sheikhattari , P. , Assasi , N. , Eftekhar , H. , Zamani , Q. , Maleki , B. and Kiabayan , H. 2006 . Child maltreatment among school children in the Kurdistan Province, Iran . Child Abuse & Neglect , 30 : 231 – 245 . doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.10.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoltenborgh , M. , Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. and Van IJzendoorn , M. H. 2012 . The neglect of child neglect: A meta-analytic review of the prevalence of neglect , Manuscript in preparation .
   Google Scholar
• Stoltenborgh , M. , Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. , Van IJzendoorn , M. H. and Alink , L. R. A. in press . Cultural-geographical differences in the occurrence of child physical abuse? A meta-analysis of global prevalence . International Journal of Psychology. ,
   Google Scholar
• Stoltenborgh , M. , Van IJzendoorn , M. H. , Euser , E. M. and Bakermans-Kranenburg , M. J. 2011 . A global perspective on child sexual abuse: Meta-analysis of prevalence around the world . Child Maltreatment , 16 ( 2 ) : 79 – 101 . doi: 10.1177/1077559511403920
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Straus , M. A. , Hamby , S. L. , Finkelhor , D. , Moore , D. W. and Runyan , D. 1998 . Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales: development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents . Child Abuse & Neglect , 22 : 249 – 270 . doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00174-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutton , A. J. , Duval , S. J. , Tweedie , R. L. , Abrams , K. R. and Jones , D. R. 2000 . Empirical assessment of effect of publication bias on meta-analyses . British Medical Journal , 320 : 1574 – 1577 . doi: 10.1136/bmj.320.7249.1574
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang , C. S. 1996 . Adolescent abuse in Hong Kong Chinese families . Child Abuse & Neglect , 20 : 873 – 878 . doi: 10.1016/0145-2134(96)00075-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , M. P. , Kaslow , N. J. , Bradshaw , D. , Lane , D. B. and Kingree , J. B. 2000 . Childhood maltreatment, PTSD and suicidal behavior among African American females . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 15 : 3 – 15 . doi: 10.1177/088626000015001001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trocmé , N. M. , Tourigny , M. , MacLaurin , B. and Fallon , B. 2003 . Major findings from the Canadian incidence study of reported child abuse and neglect . Child Abuse and Neglect , 27 : 1427 – 1439 . *
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations. (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm (http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm)
   Google Scholar
• Van Harmelen , A. L. , Van Tol , M. J. , Van der Wee , N. J. A. , Veltman , D. J. , Aleman , A. , Spinhoven , P. … and Elzinga , B. M. 2010 . Reduced medial prefrontal cortex volume in adults reporting childhood emotional maltreatment . Biological Psychiatry , 68 : 832 – 838 . doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van IJzendoorn , M. H. and Kroonenberg , P. 1988 . Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analysis of the strange situation . Child Development , 59 : 147 – 156 . doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.ep10514129
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 1999 . Report of the Consultation on Child Abuse Prevention, 29–31 March 1999, WHO, Geneva , Geneva Switzerland : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Wright , M. O. D. 2007 . The long-term impact of emotional abuse in childhood: Identifying mediating and moderating processes . Journal of Emotional Abuse , 7 : 1 – 8 . doi: 10.1300/J135v07n02_01
   Google Scholar
• Yates , T. M. 2007 . The developmental consequences of child emotional abuse: A neurodevelopmental perspective . Journal of Emotional Abuse , 7 : 9 – 34 . doi: 10.1300/J135v07n02_02
   Google Scholar
• Young , S. Y. N. , Hansen , C. J. , Gibson , R. L. and Ryan , M. A. K. 2006 . Risky alcohol use, age at onset of drinking, and adverse childhood experiences in young men entering the US Marine Corps . Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 160 : 1207 – 1214 . doi: 10.1001/archpedi.160.12.1207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar