The effectiveness of sewage treatment processes to remove faecal pathogens and antibiotic residues

References

• Whitlock , J. , Jones , D. and Harwood , J. 2002 . Identification of the sources of faecal coliforms in an urban watershed using antibiotic resistance analysis . Water Res. , 36 : 4273 – 4282 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siewick , T. , Pullaro , T. , Pan , W. , McDaniels , S. , Glenn , R. and Stewart , J. 2007 . Models of total and presumed wildlife sources of faecal coliform bacteria in coastal ponds . J. Environ. Man. , 82 : 120 – 132 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rose , J. , Dickson , L. , Farrah , S. and Carnahan , R. 1996 . Removal of pathogenic indicator microorganism by a full-scale water reclamation facility . Water Res. , 30 ( 11 ) : 2788 – 2795 .
   Google Scholar
• George , I. , Crop , P. and Servais , P. 2002 . Fecal coliform removal in wastewater treatment plants studied by plate counts and enzymatic methods . Water Res. , 36 : 2607 – 2617 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young , K. and Thackston , E. 1999 . Housing density and bacterial loading in urban streams . J. Environ. Eng. 1999 , 125 ( 12 ) : 1177 – 1180 .
   Google Scholar
• Rompré , A. , Servais , P. , Baudart , J. , de-Roubin , M. and Laurent , P. 2002 . Detection and enumeration of coliforms in drinking water: current methods and emerging approaches . J. Micro. Meth. , 49 : 31 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch , R. , Ternes , T. , Haberer , K. and Kratz , K. 1999 . Occurrence of antibiotics in the aquatic environment . Sci. Tot. Environ. , 225 : 109 – 118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulkowska , A. , Leung , H. , So , M. , Taniyasu , S. , Yamashita , N. , Yeung , L. and Richardson , B. 2008 . Removal of antibiotics from wastewater by sewage treatment facilities in Hong Kong and Shenzhen, China . Water Res. , 42 : 395 – 403 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez , M. , McDermott , P. and Walker , R. 2006 . Pharmacology of the fluoroquinolones : A perspective for the use in domestic animals . Vet. J. , 172 : 10 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picó , Y. and Andreu , V. 2007 . Fluoroquinolones in soil-risks and challenges . Anal. Bioanal. Chem. , 387 : 1287 – 1299 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vieno , N. , Tuhkanen , T. and Kronberg , L. 2007 . Elimination of pharmaceuticals in sewage treatment plants in Finland . Water Res. 2007 , 41 : 1001 – 1012 .
   Google Scholar
• Golet , E , Xifra , I. , Siegrist , H. , Alder , A. and Giger , W. 2003 . Environmental exposure assessment of fluoroquinolone antibacterial agents from sewage to soil . Environ. Sci. Technol. 2003 , 37 ( 15 ) : 3243 – 3249 .
   Google Scholar
• Lindberg , R. , Björklund , K. , Rendahl , P. , Johansson , M. , Tyskling , M. and Andersson , B. 2007 . Environmental risk assessment of antibiotics in the Swedish environment with emphasis on sewage treatment plants . Water Res. , 41 : 613 – 619 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang , H. and Wang , S. 2009 . Review on Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent assays for sulphonamide residues in edible animal products . J Immun. Meth. , 350 : 1 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng , X. , Wang , Z. , Kuang , W. , Tan , J. and Li , K. 2006 . A preliminary study on the occurrence and behaviour of sulphonamides, ofloxacin and chloramphenicol antimicrobials in wastewaters of two sewage treatment plants in Guangzhou, China . Sci. Tot. Environ. , 371 : 314 – 322 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong , C. , Ying , H. , LeZheng , W. and Bing , S. 2008 . Occurrence of sulphonamide antibiotics in sewage treatment plants . Chin. Sci. Bull. 2008 , 53 ( 4 ) : 514 – 520 .
   Google Scholar
• Ternes , T. 1998 . Occurrence of drugs in German sewage treatment plants and rivers . Water Res. , 32 : 3245 – 3260 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ternes , T. , Kreckel , P. and Mueller , J. 1999 . Behaviour and occurrence of estrogens in municipal sewage treatment plants II. Aerobic batch experiments with activated sludge . Sci. Tot. Environ. , 225 : 91 – 99 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samie , A. , Obi , C. , Igumbor , J. and Momba , M. 2009 . Focus on 14 sewage treatment plants in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa in order to gauge the efficiency of wastewater treatment . Afr. J. Biotech. , 8 ( 14 ) : 3276 – 3285 .
   Google Scholar
• Dungeni , M. and Momba , M. 2010 . The abundance of Cryptosporidum and Giardia spp. in treated effluents produced by four wastewater treatment plants in the Gauteng Province of South Africa . Water SA. , 36 : 4
   Google Scholar
• Omar , K. and Bernard , T. 2010 . The occurrence of pathogenic Escherichia coli in South African wastewater treatment plants as detected by multiplex PCR . Water SA. , 36 ( 2 ) : 172 – 176 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ottoson , J. , Hansen , A. , Björlenius , B. , Norder , H. and Strenström , T. 2006 . Removal of viruses, parasitic protozoa and microbial indicators in conventional and membrane processes in a wastewater pilot plant . Water Res. , 40 : 1449 – 1457 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wutor , V. , Toga , C. and Pletchke , B. 2009 . Suitability of total coliform β-D-galactosidase activity and CFU counts in monitoring faecal contamination of environmental water samples . Water SA. , 35 ( 1 ) : 85 – 88 .
   Google Scholar
• Molleda , P. , Blanco , I. , Ansola , G. and de Luis , L. 2008 . Removal of wastewater pathogen indicators in a constructed wetland in Leon, Spain . Ecol. Eng. , 33 : 252 – 257 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thurston , J. , Gerba , C. , Foster , K. and Karpiscak , M. 2001 . Fate of indicator microorganisms, Giardia and Cryptosporidium in subsurface flow constructed wetlands . Water Res. , 35 ( 6 ) : 1547 – 1551 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) . 1998 . Quality of domestic water supplies - assessment guide, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria . 1
   Google Scholar
• Guo , M. , Hu , H. and Liu , W. 2009 . Preliminary investigation on safety of post-UV disinfection of wastewater: bio-stability in laboratory-scale simulated reuse water pipelines . Desalination , 239 : 22 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moura , A. , Tacâo , M. , Henriques , I. , Dias , J. , Ferreira , P. and Correia , A. 2007 . Characterization of bacterial diversity in two aerated lagoons of a wastewater treatment plant using PCR-DGGE analysis . Micro Res. , Available at http://www.dwa.gov.za/iwqs/AssessmentGuides/AssessmentGuide/AssessmentGuide.pdf (accessed July 11, 2011) doi: 10.1016/j.micres.2007.06.005.
   Google Scholar
• Brungs , W. 1973 . Effects of residual chlorine on aquatic life . J Water Environ. Life. , 45 ( 10 ) : 2180 – 2193 .
   Google Scholar
• Bolzonella , D. , Fatone , F. , di Fabio , S. and Cecchi , F. 2010 . Application of membrane bioreactor technology for wastewater treatment and reuse in the Mediterranean region: Focusing on removal efficiency of non-conventional pollutants . J. Environ. Man. , 91 : 2424 – 2431 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senta , I. , Terzic , S. and Ahel , M. 2008 . Simultaneous determination of sulphonamides, fluoroquinolones, macrolides and trimethoprim in wastewater and river water by LC-Tandem-MS . Chromatog , 68 : 747 – 758 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castiglioni , S. , Calamari , D. , Bagnati , R. , Zuccato , E. and Fanelli , R. 2004 . Comparison of the concentrations of pharmaceuticals in sewage treatment plants and rivers in Italy as a tool for investigating their environmental distribution and fate . Abstract, SETAC Europe, 14th Annual meeting, 18–22 April, Prague
   Google Scholar
• Tixier , C. , Singer , H. , Oellers , S. and Müller , S. 2003 . Occurrence and fate of carbamazepine, clofibric acid, diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen in surface waters . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 37 : 1061 – 1068 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakata , H. , Kannan , K. , Jones , P. and Giesy , J. 2005 . Determination of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in wastewater effluents by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry and fluorescence detection . Chemosphere , 58 ( 6 ) : 759 – 766 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Xu , W. , Zhang , G. , Xiangdong , L. , Zou , S. , Li , P. , Hu , Z. and Li , J. 2007 . Occurrence and elimination of antibiotics at four sewage treatment plants in the Pearl River Delta (PRD), South China . Water Res. , 41 : 4526 – 4534 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miranda , C. and Zemelman , R. 2001 . Antibiotic resistance bacteria in fish from the Concepción Bay, Chile . Mar. Poll. Bull. , 42 ( 11 ) : 1096 – 1102 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pathak , S. and Gopal , K. 2005 . Occurrence of antibiotic and metal resistance in bacteria from organs of river fish . Environ. Res. , 98 : 100 – 103 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holm , J. , Rugge , K. , Bieg , P. and Christensen , T. 1995 . Occurrence and distribution of pharmaceutical organic compounds in the ground-water downgradient of a landfill (Grindsted, Denmark) . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 29 : 1415 – 1420 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kummerer , K. 2001 . Drugs in the environment: Emission of drugs, diagnostic aids and disinfectants into wastewater by hospitals in relation to other sources—A review . Chemosphere. , 45 : 957 – 969 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuccato , E. , Castiglioni , S. , Bagnati , R. , Melis , M. and Fanelli , R. 2010 . Source, occurrence and fate of antibiotics in the Italian aquatic environment . J. Hazard. Mat. , 179 : 1042 – 1048 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkinson , A. , Murby , E. and Costanzo , S. 2007 . Removal of antibiotics in conventional and advanced wastewater treatment: Implications for environmental discharge and wastewater recycling . Water Res. , 41 : 4164 – 4176 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radjenović , J. , Petrović , M. and Barceló , D. 2009 . Fate and distribution of pharmaceuticals in wastewater and sewage sludge of the conventional activated sludge (CAS) and advanced membrane bioreactor (MBR) treatment . Water Res. , 43 : 831 – 841 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar