Emission factors of fine particulate matter, organic and elemental carbon, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide for four solid fuels commonly used in residential heating by the U.S. Navajo Nation

References

• Affolter, R.H. 2000. Quality characterization of cretaceous coal from the Colorado Plateau Coal Assessent Area. In M.A. Kirschbaum, L.N.R. Roberts, and L.R.H. Biewick (Eds.), Geologic Assessment of Coal in the Colorado Plateau: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, Vol. 1, G1–G136. Denver, CO: U.S. Geological Survey. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1625b/ (accessed March 24, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Alves, C., C. Gonçalves, A.P. Fernandes, L. Tarelho, and C. Pio. 2011. Fireplace and woodstove fine particle emissions from combustion of western Mediterranean wood types. Atmos. Res. 101:692–700. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.04.015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Society for Testing and Materials. 2010. Standard Test Method for Determining Particulate Matter Emissions from Wood Heaters. E2780-10 ASTM International: 1–13]. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials. doi: 10.1520/E2780-10.2.
   Google Scholar
• Andreae, M.O., and P. Merlet. 2001. Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 15:955–66. doi: 10.1029/2000GB001382.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arizona Bureau of Mines. 1977. Chemical Analyses of Coal Samples from the Black Mesa Field, Arizona. http://repository.azgs.az.gov/uri_gin/azgs/dlio/1067 (accessed March 24, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Arizona Rural Policy Institute. 2010. Demographic Analysis of the Navajo Nation Using 2010 Census and 2010 American Community Survey Estimates. http://gotr.azgovernor.gov/sites/default/files/navajo_nation_0.pdf (accessed September 3, 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Bäfver, L.S., B. Leckner, C. Tullin, and M. Berntsen. 2011. Particle emissions from pellets stoves and modern and old-type wood stoves. Biomass Bioenergy 35:3648–55. doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.05.027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, D.E. 1993. Wood Stove Maintenance and Operation. University of Missouri Extension Web site. http://extension.missouri.edu/p/G1731 (accessed April 10, 2017).
   Google Scholar
• Ballard-Tremeer, G., and H.H. Jawurek. 1999. The “hood method” of measuring emissions of rural cooking devices. Biomass Bioenergy 16:341–5. doi: 10.1016/S0961-9534(99)00012-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilbao, R., J.F. Mastral, M.E. Aldea, J. Ceamanos, M. Betrán, and J.A. Lana. 2001. Experimental and theoretical study of the ignition and smoldering of wood including convective effects. Combust. Flame 126:1363–72. doi: 10.1016/S0010-2180(01)00251-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birch, M.E., and R.A. Cary. 1996. Elemental carbon-based method for monitoring occupational exposures to particulate diesel exhaust. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 25:221–41. doi: 10.1080/02786829608965393.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond, T.C., S.J. Doherty, D.W. Fahey, P.M. Forster, T. Berntsen, B.J. DeAngelo, M.G. Flanner, S. Ghan, B. Kärcher, D. Koch, S. Kinne, Y. Kondo, P.K. Quinn, M.C. Sarofim, M.G. Schultz, M. Schulz, C. Venkataraman, H. Zhang, S. Zhang, N. Bellouin, S. K. Guttikunda, P.K. Hopke, M.Z. Jacobson, J.W. Kaiser, Z. Klimont, U. Lohmann, J. P. Schwarz, D. Shindell, T. Storelvmo, S.G. Warren, and C.S. Zender. 2013. Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118:5380–552. doi: 10.1002/jgrd.50171.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond, T.C., D.G. Streets, K.F. Yarber, S.M. Nelson, J.H. Woo, and Z. Klimont. 2004. A technology-based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion. J. Geophys. Res. D Atmos. 109:D14203. doi: 10.1029/2003JD003697.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, L.F., D.D. Hickmott, R.P. Currier, S.C. Semken, T. Lameman, S. Martin, and S. Yazzie. 1996. Reducing Adverse Health Effects and Improving Performance of Stoves on the Navajo Reservation—A Plan for Action. Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos National Laboratory.
   Google Scholar
• Bunnell, J.E., L.V Garcia, J.M. Furst, H. Lerch, R.A. Olea, S.E. Suitt, and A. Kolker. 2010. Navajo coal combustion and respiratory health near Shiprock, New Mexico. J. Environ. Public Health 2010:260525. doi: 10.1155/2010/260525.
   Google Scholar
• Butcher, S.S., and M.J. Ellenbecker. 1982. Particulate emission factors for small wood and coal stoves. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 32:380–4. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1982.10465413.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butcher, S.S., U. Rao, K.R. Smith, J.F. Osborn, P. Azuma, and H. Fields. 1984. Emission factors and efficiencies for small-scale open biomass combustion: Towards standard measurement techniques. Abstr. Pap. Am. Chem. Soc. 188:122–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butcher, S.S., and E.M. Sorenson. 1979. A study of wood stove particulate emissions. J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 29:724–8. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1979.10470854.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cartledge, B.T., and B.J. Majestic. 2015. Metal concentrations and soluble iron speciation in fine particulate matter from light rail activity in the Denver-metropolitan area. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 6:495–502. doi: 10.5094/APR.2015.055.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Champion, W.M., P.H. Charley, B. Klein, K. Stewart, P.A. Solomon, and L.D. Montoya. 2017. Perception, cultural, and technical assessment of heating alternatives to improve indoor air quality in the Navajo Nation. Sci. Total Environ. 580:297–306. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, L.W.A., H. Moosmüller, W.P. Arnott, J.C. Chow, J.G. Watson, R.A. Susott, R.E. Babbitt, C.E. Wold, E.N. Lincoln, and M.H. Wei. 2007. Emissions from laboratory combustion of wildland fuels: Emission factors and source profiles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41:4317–25. doi: 10.1021/es062364i.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, W., K. Annamalai, R.J. Ansley, and M. Mirik. 2012. Updraft fixed bed gasification of mesquite and juniper wood samples. Energy 41:454–61. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2012.02.052.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Y., G. Shen, W. Liu, W. Du, S. Su, Y. Duan, N. Lin, S. Zhuo, X. Wang, B. Xing, and S. Tao. 2016. Field measurement and estimate of gaseous and particle pollutant emissions from cooking and space heating processes in rural households, northern China. Atmos. Environ. 125:265–71. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.11.032.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Y., G. Sheng, X. Bi, Y. Feng, B. Mai, and J. Fu. 2005. Emission factors for carbonaceous particles and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from residential coal combustion in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:1861–7. doi: 10.1021/es0493650.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curkeet, R., and R. Ferguson. 2010. EPA Wood Heater Test Method Variability Study: Analysis of Uncertainty, Repeatability and Reproducibility Based on the EPA Accredited Laboratory Proficiency Test Database, 1–43. http://www.hpba.org/government-affairs/nsps-members/Wood-Heater-Emission-Test-Method-Variability-Paper.pdf/at_download/file&usg=AFQjCNElr1GG5j (accessed April 4, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Dutton, S.J., J.J. Schauer, S. Vedal, and M.P. Hannigan. 2009. PM2.5 characterization for time series studies: Pointwise uncertainty estimation and bulk speciation methods applied in Denver. Atmos. Environ. 43:1136–46. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.10.003.PM.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engle, R.F., and C.W.J. Granger. 1987. Co-integration and error correction: Representation, estimation, and testing. Econometrica 55:251–76. doi: 10.2307/1913236.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fine, P.M., G.R. Cass, and B.R.T. Simoneit. 2004. Chemical characterization of fine particle emissions from the wood stove combustion of prevalent united states tree species. Environ. Eng. Sci. 21:705–21. doi: 10.1089/ees.2004.21.705.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick, E.M., J.M. Jones, M. Pourkashanian, A.B. Ross, A. Williams, and K.D. Bartle. 2008. Mechanistic aspects of soot formation from the combustion of pine wood. Energy Fuels 22:3771–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forouzanfar, M.H., L. Alexander, H.R. Anderson, V.F. Bachman, S. Biryukov, M. Brauer, R. Burnett, D. Casey, M.M. Coates, A. Cohen, et al., 2015. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks in 188 countries, 1990–2013: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2013. Lancet 386:2287–323. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00128-2.
   Google Scholar
• Frenklach, M. 2002. Reaction mechanism of soot formation in flames. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 4:2028–37. doi: 10.1039/b110045a.
   Google Scholar
• Gaur, S., and T. B. Reed. 1998. Thermal Data for Natural and Synthetic Fuels. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker. http://drtlud.com/BEF/proximat.htm (accessed March 1, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Gonçalves, C., C. Alves, A. P. Fernandes, C. Monteiro, L. Tarelho, M. Evtyugina, and C. Pio. 2011. Organic compounds in PM2.5 emitted from fireplace and woodstove combustion of typical Portuguese wood species. Atmos. Environ. 45:4533–45. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.05.071.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickmott, D.D., L.F. Brown, R.P. Currier, S.C. Semken, T. Lameman, M. Suzette, and S. Yazzie. 1997. Environmentally Conscious Coal Combustion. Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos National Laboratory. http://www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/516052 (accessed August 1, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Hosier, R.H., and J. Dowd. 1987. Household fuel choice in Zimbabwe. Resour. Energy 9:347–61. doi: 10.1016/0165-0572(87)90003-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houck, J.E., L.Y. Pitzman, and P. Tiegs. 2008. Emission Factors for Aged Uncertified Residential Cordwood Heaters. Proceedings of the 17th International Emission Inventory Conference, Inventory Evaluation—Portal to Improved Air Quality. http://search.proquest.com/docview/19587803?accountid=171201 ( accessed June 2, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2006. Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/index.html (accessed July 24, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2010. Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-Temperature Frying. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol. 95. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol95/mono95.pdf (accessed November 10, 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Jeong, C., G.J. Evans, T. Dann, M. Graham, D. Herod, E. Dabek-zlotorzynska, D. Mathieu, L. Ding, and D. Wang. 2008. Influence of biomass burning on wintertime fine particulate matter: Source contribution at a valley site in rural British Columbia Atmospheric Environment 42:3684–99. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.01.006.
   Google Scholar
• Jetter, J., Y. Zhao, K.R. Smith, B. Khan, T. Yelverton, P. Decarlo, and M.D. Hays. 2012. Pollutant emissions and energy efficiency under controlled conditions for household biomass cookstoves and implications for metrics useful in setting international test standards. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46:10827–34. doi: 10.1021/es301693f.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan, T.B., and A.J. Seen. 2005. Effect of airflow setting on the organic composition of woodheater emissions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:3601–10. doi: 10.1021/es0487628.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Junker, C., and C. Liousse. 2006. A global emission inventory of carbonaceous aerosol from historic records of fossil fuel and biofuel consumption for the period 1860–1997. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 6:4897–927. doi: 10.5194/acpd-6-4897-2006.
   Google Scholar
• Karanasiou, A., M.C. Minguillón, M. Viana, A. Alastuey, J.-P. Putaud, W. Maenhaut, P. Panteliadis, G. Močnik, O. Favez, and T.A.J. Kuhlbusch. 2015. Thermal-optical analysis for the measurement of elemental carbon (EC) and organic carbon (OC) in ambient air a literature review. Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss 8:9649–712. doi: 10.5194/amtd-8-9649-2015.
   Google Scholar
• Kirschbaum, B.M.A., and L.R.H. Biewick. 2000. A Summary of the Coal Deposits in the Colorado Plateau: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1625-B. Boulder, CO: U.S. Geological Survey.
   Google Scholar
• Klasen, E.M., B. Wills, N. Naithani, R.H. Gilman, J.M. Tielsch, M. Chiang, S. Khatry, P.N. Breysse, D. Menya, C. Apaka, E.J. Carter, C.B. Sherman, J.J. Miranda, W. Checkley, L. Grajeda, D. Haustein, A. Huaman, S. Kimaiyo, S. LeClerq, M. Levano, S. Levy, P. Mosol, F. Ogaro, E. Rhodes, and R.A. Wise. 2015. Low correlation between household carbon monoxide and particulate matter concentrations from biomass-related pollution in three resource-poor settings. Environ. Res. 142:424–31. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2015.07.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kortelainen, A., J. Joutsensaari, L. Hao, J. Leskinen, P. Tiitta, A. Jaatinen, P. Miettinen, O. Sippula, T. Torvela, J. Tissari, J. Jokiniemi, D.R. Worsnop, J.N. Smith, A. Laaksonen, and A. Virtanen. 2015. Real-time chemical composition analysis of particulate emissions from woodchip combustion. Energy Fuels 29:1143–50. doi: 10.1021/ef5019548.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreider, J. F., and F. Kreith. 1982. Solar Heating and Cooling: Active and Passive Design. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, T., A.P. Sullivan, L. Mack, J.L. Jimenez, S.M. Kreidenweis, T.B. Onasch, D.R. Worsnop, W. Malm, C.E. Wold, W.M. Hao, and J.L. Collett. 2010. Chemical smoke marker emissions during flaming and smoldering phases of laboratory open burning of wildland fuels. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 44:i–v. doi: 10.1080/02786826.2010.499884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, S., M. Lee, G. Lee, S. Kim, S. Yoon, and K. Kang. 2012. Ionic and carbonaceous compositions of PM10, PM2.5 and PM1.0 at Gosan ABC Superstation and their ratios as source signature. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12:2007–24. doi: 10.5194/acp-12-2007-2012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsky, E.M., and A.L. Robinson. 2006. Effects of dilution on fine particle mass and partitioning of semivolatile organics in diesel exhaust and wood smoke. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:155–62. doi: 10.1021/es050319p.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacCarty, N., D. Still, and D. Ogle. 2010. Fuel use and emissions performance of fifty cooking stoves in the laboratory and related benchmarks of performance. Energy Sustain. Dev. 14:161–71. doi: 10.1016/j.esd.2010.06.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majestic, B.J., J.A. Turner, and A.R. Marcotte. 2012. Respirable antimony and other trace-elements inside and outside an elementary school in Flagstaff, AZ, USA. Sci. Total Environ. 435–436:253–61. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.07.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCracken, J.P., J. Schwartz, A. Diaz, N. Bruce, and K.R. Smith. 2013. Longitudinal relationship between personal CO and personal PM2.5 among women cooking with woodfired cookstoves in Guatemala. PLoS ONE 8:e55670. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald, J., B. Zielinska, E.M. Fujita, J.C. Sagebiel, J.C. Chow, and J.G. Watson. 2000. Fine particle and gaseous emission rates from residential wood combustion. Environ. Sci. Technol. 775:2080–91. doi: 10.1021/es9909632.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMeeking, G.R., S.M. Kreidenweis, S. Baker, C.M. Carrico, J.C. Chow, J.L. Collett, W.M. Hao, A.S. Holden, T.W. Kirchstetter, W. C. Malm, H. Moosmüller, A.P. Sullivan, and W. Cyle. 2009. Emissions of trace gases and aerosols during the open combustion of biomass in the laboratory. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 114:D19210. doi: 10.1029/2009JD011836.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, K., M. Morganlander, J. L. Coulehan, S. Gahagen, and V. C. Arena. 1990. Wood-burning stoves and lower respiratory tract infection in American Indian children. Am. J. Dis. Child. 144:105–8. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.1990.02150250117047.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Naeher, L.P., M. Brauer, M. Lipsett, J.T. Zelikoff, C.D. Simpson, J.Q. Koenig, and K.R. Smith. 2007. Woodsmoke health effects: A review. Inhal. Toxicol. 19:67–106. doi: 10.1080/08958370600985875.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naeher, L.P., K.R. Smith, B.P. Leaderer, L. Neufeld, and D.T. Mage. 2001. Carbon monoxide as a tracer for assessing exposures to particulate matter in wood and gas cookstove households of highland Guatemala. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35:575–81. doi: 10.1021/es991225g.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Northcross, A., Z. Chowdhury, J. McCracken, E. Canuz, and K.R. Smith. 2010. Estimating personal PM2.5 exposures using CO measurements in Guatemalan households cooking with wood fuel. J. Environ. Monit. 12:873–8. doi: 10.1039/b916068j.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussbaumer, T., C. Czasch, N. Klippel, L. Johansson, and C. Tullin. 2008. Particulate Emissions from Biomass Combustion in IEA Countries. Zurich, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Office of Energy, Zurich, Switzerland. http://www.ieabcc.nl/publications/Nussbaumer_et_al_IEA_Report_PM10_Jan_2008.pdf (accessed April 30, 2017).
   Google Scholar
• Obaidullah, M., I.V. Dyakov, J.D. Thomassin, T. Duquesne, S. Bram, F. Contino, and J. De Ruyck. 2014. CO Emission measurements and performance analysis of 10 kW and 20 kW wood stoves. Energy Proc. 61:2301–6. doi: 10.1016/j.egypro.2014.12.443.
   Google Scholar
• Overend, R.P., T. Milne, and L. Mudge. 2012. Fundamentals of Thermochemical Biomass Conversion. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.
   Google Scholar
• Ozgen, S., S. Caserini, S. Galante, M. Giugliano, E. Angelino, A. Marongiu, F. Hugony, G. Migliavacca, and C. Morreale. 2014. Emission factors from small scale appliances burning wood and pellets. Atmos. Environ. 94:144–53. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.05.032.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pankow, J.F. 1994. An absorption model of gas/particle partitioning of organic compounds in the atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 28:185–8. doi: 10.1016/1352-2310(94)90093-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettersson, E., C. Boman, R. Westerholm, D. Boström, and A. Nordin. 2011. Stove performance and emission characteristics in residential wood log and pellet combustion, Part 2: Wood stove. Energy Fuels 25:315–23. doi: 10.1021/ef1007787.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollard, S.L., D.L. Williams, P.N. Breysse, P.A. Baron, L.M. Grajeda, R.H. Gilman, J.J. Miranda, and W. Checkley. 2014. A cross-sectional study of determinants of indoor environmental exposures in households with and without chronic exposure to biomass fuel smoke. Environ. Health 13:21. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-13-21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy, M.S., and C. Venkataraman. 2002. Inventory of aerosol and sulphur dioxide emissions from India: I—Fossil fuel combustion. Atmos. Environ. 36:677–97. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00463-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robin, L.F., P.S.J. Lees, M. Winget, M. Steinhoff, L.H. Moulton, M. Santosham, and A. Correa. 1996. Word-burning stoves and lower respiratory illnessess in Navajo children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 15:859–65. doi: 10.1097/00006454-199610000-00006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roden, C.A., T.C. Bond, S. Conway, and A.B. Osorto Pinel. 2006. Emission factors and real-time optical properties of particles emitted from traditional wood burning cookstoves. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:6750–7. doi: 10.1021/es052080i.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roden, C.A., T.C. Bond, S. Conway, A.B. Osorto Pinel, N. MacCarty, and D. Still. 2009. Laboratory and field investigations of particulate and carbon monoxide emissions from traditional and improved cookstoves. Atmos. Environ. 43:1170–81. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.05.041.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogalsky, D.K., P. Mendola, T.A. Metts, and W.J. Martin. 2014. Estimating the number of low-income americans exposed to household air pollution from burning solid fuels. Environ. Health Perspect. 122:806–10. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1306709.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, G., M. Xue, Y. Chen, C. Yang, W. Li, H. Shen, Y. Huang, Y. Zhang, H. Chen, Y. Zhu, H. Wu, A. Ding, and S. Tao. 2014. Comparison of carbonaceous particulate matter emission factors among different solid fuels burned in residential stoves. Atmos. Environ. 89:337–45. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.01.033.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, G., Y. Yang, W. Wang, S. Tao, C. Zhu, Y. Min, M. Xue, J. Ding, B. Wang, R. Wang, H. Shen, W. Li, X. Wang, and A.G. Russell. 2010. Emission factors of particulate matter and elemental carbon for crop residues and coals burned in typical household stoves in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44:7157–62. doi: 10.1021/es101313y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siddiqui, A.R., K. Lee, D. Bennett, X. Yang, K.H. Brown, Z.A. Bhutta, and E.B. Gold. 2009. Indoor carbon monoxide and PM2.5 concentrations by cooking fuels in Pakistan. Indoor Air 19:75–82. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2008.00563.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, K.R. 1990. Indoor air quality and the pollution transition. In Indoor Air Quality, ed. H. Kasuga, 448–56. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, K.R., N. Bruce, K. Balakrishnan, H. Adair-Rohani, J. Balmes, Z. Chafe, M. Dherani, H.D. Hosgood, S. Mehta, D. Pope, and E. Rehfuess. 2014. Millions dead: How do we know and what does it mean? methods used in the comparative risk assessment of household air pollution. Annu. Rev. Public Health 35:185–206. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, K.R., M.A.K. Khalil, R.A. Rasmussen, S.A. Thorneloe, F. Manegdeg, and M. Apte. 1993. Greenhouse gases from biomass and fossil-fuel stoves in developing-countries—A Manila pilot-study. Chemosphere 26:479–505. doi: 10.1016/0045-6535(93)90440-G.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streets, D.G., T.C. Bond, G.R. Carmichael, S.D. Fernandes, Q. Fu, D. He, Z. Klimont, S.M. Nelson, N.Y. Tsai, M.Q. Wang, J.-H. Woo, and K.F. Yarber. 2003. An inventory of gaseous and primary aerosol emissions in Asia in the year 2000. J. Geophys. Res. 108(D21):8809. doi: 10.1029/2002JD003093.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, E., K. Wickramasinghe, S. Mendis, N. Roberts, and C. Foster. 2015. Improved stove interventions to reduce household air pollution in low and middle income countries: A descriptive systematic review. BMC Public Health 15:650. doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-2024-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tissari, J., K. Hytönen, J. Lyyränen, and J. Jokiniemi. 2007. A novel field measurement method for determining fine particle and gas emissions from residential wood combustion. Atmos. Environ. 41:8330–44. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turns, S. 1996. An Introduction to Combustion: Concepts and Applications. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. 2014. American Community Survey Navajo Nation Demographic and Housing. https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/14_5YR/DP05/2500000US2430 (accessed March 2, 2015).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. 2015. Navajo Nation House Heating Fuel 2011–2015 American Community Survey Estimate. https://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/ACS/15_5YR/B25040/2500000US2430 (accessed January 12, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1984. Guidelines on Preferred Location and Design of Measurement Ports for Air Pollution Control. https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=50000KW3.TXT (accessed December 10, 2014).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. Effects of Design Factors on Emissions from Non-Catalytic Residential Wood Combustion Appliances. http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=9100J6Q5.TXT (accessed March 11, 2015).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1988. Method 28—Certification and Auditing of Wood Heaters, 1–15. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-06/documents/m-28.pdf (accessed October 11, 2015).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. AP-42, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1: External Combustion Sources, Residential Wood Stoves 1(10):1–10. http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch01/index.html (accessed September 1, 2014).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2016a. Process for Developing Improved Cordwood Test Methods for Wood Heaters. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-03/documents/discussion_paper_-_process_for_dev_imp_cwtm_030916.pdf (accessed March 12, 2015).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2016b. Basic Information of Air Emissions Factors and Quantification. https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-factors-and-quantification/basic-information-air-emissions-factors-and-quantification (accessed September 15, 2014).
   Google Scholar
• Vicente, E.D., M.A. Duarte, A.I. Calvo, T.F. Nunes, L. Tarelho, and C.A. Alves. 2015. Emission of carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbons and particulate matter during wood combustion in a stove operating under distinct conditions. Fuel Process. Technol. 131:182–92. doi: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.11.021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, T., J. Boulafentis, J. Simpson, C. Hester, T. Moliga, K. Warden, and C. Noonan. 2011. Lessons learned from a woodstove changeout on the Nez Perce Reservation. Sci. Total Environ. 409:664–70. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.11.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2014. WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Household Fuel Combustion. http://www.who.int/indoorair/guidelines/hhfc/en (accessed February 1, 2015)
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2016. Burning Opportunity: Clean Household Energy for Health, Sustainable Development, and Wellbeing of Women and Children. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/204717/1/9789241565233_eng.pdf?ua=1 (accessed December 10, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Yamamoto, S. S., V. R. Louis, A. Sié, and R. Sauerborn. 2014. Biomass smoke in Burkina Faso: What is the relationship between particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and kitchen characteristics? Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 21:2581–91. doi: 10.1007/s11356-013-2062-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, J., K. Smith, Y. Ma, S. Ye, F. Jiang, W. Qi, P. Liu, M.A. Khalil, R. Rasmussen, and S. Thorneloe. 2000. Greenhouse gases and other airborne pollutants from household stoves in China: A database for emission factors. Atmos. Environ. 34:4537–49. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00450-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, K.M., and A.S. Wexler. 2004. Evolution of particle number distribution near roadways—Part I: Analysis of aerosol dynamics and its implications for engine emission measurement. Atmos. Environ. 38:6643–53. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.06.043.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., J. J. Schauer, Y. Zhang, L. Zeng, Y. Wei, Y. Liu, and M. Shao. 2008. Characteristics of particulate carbon emissions from real-world Chinese coal combustion. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42:5068–5073. doi: 10.1021/es7022576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhi, G., Y. Chen, Y. Feng, S. Xiong, L.I. Jun, G.A.N. Zhang, G. Sheng, and J. Fu. 2008. Emission characteristics of carbonaceous particles from various residential coal-stoves in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42:3310–5. doi: 10.1021/es702247q.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar