4,357
Views
14
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Paper

An overview of selected emerging outdoor airborne pollutants and air quality issues: The need to reduce uncertainty about environmental and human impacts

Pages 341-378 | Received 31 May 2019, Accepted 23 Jan 2020, Published online: 04 Mar 2020

References

  • ACI (Airports Council International). 2016. ACI annual report 2016. Accessed November 22, 2019. https://issuu.com/aciworld/docs/aci_annual_report_2016.
  • Adgate, J. L., B. D. Goldstein, and L. M. McKenzie. 2014. Potential public health hazards, exposures and health effects from unconventional natural gas development. Env. Sci. Tech. 48:8307–20. doi:10.1021/es404621d.
  • Ahlholm, J. U., M. L. Helander, and J. Savolainen. 1998. Genetic and environmental factors affecting the allergenicity of birch pollen (Betula pubescens ssp. Czerepanobii (Orl) Hämet-Ahti). Clin. Exp. Allergy 28:1384–88. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2222.1998.00404.x.
  • Amato, F., M. Schaap, C. Reche, and X. Querol. 2013. Road traffic: A major source of particulate matter in Europe. Urban Air Qual. Eur. 26:165–93. doi:10.1007/698_2012_211.
  • Amato, P., M. Ménager, M. Sancelme, P. Laj, G. Mailhot, and A. M. Delort. 2005. Microbial population in cloud water at the Puy de Dôme: Implications for the chemistry of clouds. Atmos. Environ. 39:4143–53. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.04.002.
  • ANSES. 2014. État des connaissances sur l’impact sanitaire lié à l’exposition de la population générale aux pollens présents dans l’air ambiant. Avis de l’Anses. Rapport d’expertise collective. Janvier 2014. Saisine n° 2011-SA-0151, French Agency for FoodEnvironmental and Occupational Health & Safety. Accessed December 20, 2018. https://www.anses.fr/fr/system/files/AIR2011sa0151Ra.pdf.
  • ANSES. 2018. Polluants “émergents” dans l’air ambient. Rapport d’expertise collective. Juin 2018. Saisine n° 2015_SA_2016, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety. Accessed December 20, 2018. https://www.anses.fr/fr/system/files/AIR2015SA0216Ra.pdf.
  • AQEG. 2018. Ultrafine particles (UFP) in the UK. Air Quality Expert Group, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk.
  • Ariya, P. A., J. Sun, N. A. Eltouny, E. D. Hudson, C. T. Hayes, and G. Kos. 2009. Physical and chemical characterization of bioaerosols – Implications for nucleation processes. Int. Rev. Phys. Chem. 28:1–32. doi:10.1080/01442350802597438.
  • Arsenault, T., D. L. Waugh, and D. H. S. Richardson. 2005. Report on the Halifax experiment pollen and spore forecast program. Meteorological Service of Canada, Atlantic Region. Science Report Series 2005-1, Environment Canada, Government of Canada, Darmouth, Canada.
  • Arujo, J. A. 2011a. Particulate air pollution, systemic oxidative stress, inflammation, and atherosclerosis. Air Qual. Atmos. Health 4 (1):79–93. doi:10.1007/s11869-010-0101-8.
  • Arujo, J. A. 2011b. Are ultrafine particles a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases? Rev. Esp. Cardiol. 64 (8):642–45. doi:10.1016/j.rec.2011.05.006.
  • Arujo, J. A., B. Barajas, M. Kleinman, X. Wang, B. J. Bennett, K. W. Gong, M. Navab, J. Harlema, C. Sioutas, A. J. Lusis, et al. 2008. Ambient particulate pollutants in the ultrafine range promote early atherosclerosis and systemic oxidative stress. Circ. Res. 102 (5):589–96. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.107.164970.
  • ATSDR. 1992. Toxicological profile for 1,3 butadiene. Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service, U.S. department of Health and Human Services.
  • ATSDR. 1997. Toxicological profile for acrolein. Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service, U.S. department of Health and Human Services.
  • ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological profile for methylene chloride. Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service, U.S. department of Health and Human Services.
  • ATSDR. 2007. Toxicological profile for chloroform, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene. Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service, U.S. department of Health and Human Services.
  • ATSDR. 2015. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Priority List. Accessed February 6, 2020. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/spl/resources/2015_atsdr_substance_priority_list.html
  • ATSDR. 2017. Toxicological profile for toluene. Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service, U.S. department of Health and Human Services.
  • ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 1990. Toxicological profile for ethylene oxide. Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service, U.S. department of Health and Human Services.
  • Baldauf, R. W., R. B. Devlin, P. Gehr, R. Giannelli, B. Hassett-Sipple, H. Jung, G. Martini, J. McDonald, J. D. Sacks, and K. Walker. 2016. Ultrafine particle metrics and research considerations: Review of the 2015 UFP workshop. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 13:1054. doi:10.3390/ijerph13111054.
  • Balducci, C., M. Perilli, and P. Romagnoli. 2012. New developments on emerging organic pollutants in the atmosphere. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 19:1875–84. doi:10.1007/s11356-012-0815-2.
  • Behrendt, H., and W. M. Becker. 2001. Localization, release and bioavailability of pollen allergens: The influence of environmental factors. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 13 (6):709–15. doi:10.1016/S0952-7915(01)00283-7.
  • Behrendt, H., W. M. Becker, C. Fritzsche, W. Sliwa-Tomczok, J. Tomczok, K. H. Friedrichs, and J. Ring. 1997. Air pollution and allergy: Experimental studies on modulation of allergen release from pollen by air pollutants. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 113 (1–3):69–74. doi:10.1159/000237511.
  • Bové, H., E. Bongaerts, E. Slenders, E. M. Bijnens, N. D. Saenen, W. Gyselaers, P. Van Eyken, M. Plusquin, M. B. J. Roeffaers, M. Ameloot, et al. 2019. Ambient black carbon particles reach the fetal side of human placenta. Nat. Commun. 10:3866. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11654-3.
  • Brook, J. 2019. Health effects from exposure to ultrafine particles. Presented at the Workshop on ultrafine particle emissions from transportation, University of Toronto, September 18, Toronto, Canada.
  • Buijsman, E., H. F. M. Mass, and W. A. H. Asman. 1987. Anthropogenic NH3 emissions in Europe. Atmos. Environ. 21:1009–22. doi:10.1016/0004698187902307.
  • Burnett R., H. Chen, M. Szyszkowicz, N. Fann, B. Hubbell, C. Arden Pope III, J. S. Apte., M. Brauer, A. Cohen, S. Weichenthal, J. et al. 2018. Global estimates of mortality associated with long-term exposure to outdoor fine particulate matter. PNAS 115 (38):9592–97. doi:10.1073/pnas.1803222115.
  • Buters, J. T., I. Weichenmeier, S. Ochs, G. Pusch, W. Kreyling, A. J. Boere, W. Schober, and H. Behrendt. 2010. The allergen Bet v 1 in fractions of ambient air deviates from birch pollen counts. Allergy 65:850–58. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02286.x.
  • Buters, J. T., M. Thibaudon, M. Smith, R. Kennedy, A. Rantio-Lehtimäki, R. Albertini, G. Reeseg, B. Weberg, C. Galán, R. Brandaoi; The HIALINE working group, et al. 2012. Release of Bet v 1 from birch pollen from 5 European countries. Results from the HIALINE study. Atmos. Env. 55:496–505. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.01.054.
  • Cahill, T. M. 2014. Ambient Acrolein concentrations in coastal, remote, and urban regions in California. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (15):8507–13. doi:10.1021/es5014533.
  • Calderon-Guarciduenas L., R. Maronpot, R. Torres-Jardon, C. Henriquez-Roldan, R. Schoonhoven, H. Acuna-Ayala, A. Villarreal-Calderon, J. Nakamura, R. Fernando, W. Reed, et al. 2003. DNA damage in nasal and brain tissues of canines exposed to air pollutants is associated with evidence of chronic brain inflammation and neurodegeneration. Toxicol. Pathol. 31:524–38. doi:10.1080/01926230390226645.
  • Callisto, M., J. Molozzi, and B. J. L. Etham. 2014. Eutrophication of lakes. In Eutrophication: Causes, consequences and control, ed. A. A. Ansari and S. S. Gill, 55–71. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-94-007-7814-6. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5.
  • Cao, C., W. Jiang, B. Wang, J. Fang, J. Lang, G. Tian, J. Jiang, and T. F. Zhu. 2014. Inhalable microorganisms in Beijing’s PM2.5 and PM10 pollutants during a severe smog event. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (3):1499–507. doi:10.1021/es4048472.
  • Card, J. W., D. C. Zelder, J. C. Bonner, and E. R. Nestmann. 2008. Pulmonary applications and toxicity of engineered nanoparticles. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 295 (3):L400. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00041.2008.
  • Catto, C., G. Charest-Tardif, M. Rodriguez, and R. Tardif. 2012. Assessing exposure to chloroform in swimming pools using physiologically based toxicokinetic modeling. Environ. Pollut. 1. doi:10.5539/ep.v1n2p132.
  • CEPA. 1999. List of toxic substances managed under CEPA (Canadian environmental protection act) (schedule 1). Accessed August 3, 2019. www.ec.gc.ca/toxiques-toxics/.
  • Chan, E. A. W., B. Gantt, and S. McDow. 2018. The reduction of summer sulfate and switch from summertime to wintertime PM2.5 concentration maxima in the United States. Atmos. Env. 175:25–32. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.11.055.
  • Chathurika, M. R., N. Metwali, T. Jayarathne, J. Kettler, Y. Huang, P. S. Thorne, P. T. O’Shaughnessy, and E. A. Stone. 2017. Influence of rain on the abundance of bioaerosols in fine and coarse particles. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17:2459–75. doi:10.5194/acp-17-2459-2017.
  • Chen, H., J. C. Kwong, R. Copes, K. Tu, J. P. Villeneuve, and A. van Donkelaar. 2017. Living near major roads and the incidence of dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis: A population-based cohort study. The Lancet 389 (10007):718–26. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32399-6.
  • Clark, P. 2014. Air quality: An emerging issue in the airport industry. Paper presented at the Aerospace International Research Conference 16. Accessed August 3, 2019. https://commons.erau.edu/aircon/2014_Challenges_Facing_our_Industry/january-18-2014/16.
  • CMA (Canadian Medical Association). 2008. No breathing room: National illness costs of air pollution. Summary report, August. Accessed August 1, 2019. https://www.cma.ca/en/Pages/cma_default.aspx.
  • Cole, A. S., A. Robichaud, M. D. Moran, A. Lupu, M. Shaw, M. Beauchemin, G. Roy, and V. Fortin. 2018. Total nitrogen deposition by measurement-model fusion using ADAGIO. Poster presentation. AGU fall meeting, Washington, D.C., December 10–14.
  • Costa, D., J. Jesus, D. Branco, A. Danko, and A. Fliuza. 2017. Extensive review of shale gas environmental impacts from scientific literature (2010-2015). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. doi:10.1007s/s11356-017-8790-0.
  • Crouse, D. L., P. A. Peters, P. Hystad, J. R. Brook, A. van Donkelaar, R. V. Martin, P. J. Jerrett, M. S. Goldberg, C. A. Pope 3rd, M. Brauer, et al. 2015. Ambient PM2.5, O₃, and NO₂ exposures and associations with mortality over 16 years of follow-up in the Canadian census health and environment cohort (CanCHEC). Env. Health. Perspect. 123 (11):1180–86. doi:10.1289/ehp.1409276.
  • Crutzen, P. J., A. R. Mosier, K. A. Smith, and W. Winiwarter. 2008. N2O release from agro-biofuel production negates global warming reduction by replacing fossil fuels. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 8:389–95. doi:10.5194/acp-8-389-2008.
  • D’Amato, G., S. T. Holgate, R. Pawankar, D. K. Ledford, L. Cecchi, M. Al-Ahmad, F. Al-Enezl, S. Al-Muhsen, I. Ansotegui, C. E. Baena-Cagnani, et al. 2015. Meteorological conditions, climate change, new emerging factors, and asthma and related allergic disorders. A statement of the World Allergy Organization. World Allergy Organ. J. 8:25. doi:10.1186/s40413-015-0073-0.
  • Dales, R. E., S. Cakmak, S. Judek, and F. Coates. 2008. Tree pollen and hospitalization for asthma in urban Canada. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 146:241–47. doi:10.1159/000116360.
  • Dales, R. E., S. Cakmak, S. Judek, T. Dann, F. Coates, J. R. Brook, and R. T. Burnett. 2004. Influence of outdoor aeroallergens on hospitalization for asthma in Canada. Environ. Occup. Disord. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2003.11.016.
  • Dalsøren, S. B., G. Myhre, Ø. Hodnebrog, C. Lund Myhre, A. Stohl, I. Pisso, S. Schwietzke, L. Höglund-Isaksson, D. Helmig, S. Reimann, et al. 2018. Discrepancy between simulated and observed ethane and propane levels explained by underestimated fossil emissions. Geoscience. doi:10.1038/s41561-018-0073-0.
  • de Blas, M., P. Ibáñez, J. A. García, M. C. Gómez, M. Navazo, L. Alonso, N. Durana, J. Iza, G. Gangoiti, and E. S. de Cámara. 2019. Summertime high resolution variability of atmospheric formaldehyde and non-methane volatile organic compounds in a rural background area. Sci. Total Environ. 647:862–77. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.411.
  • de Jesus, A. L., M. M. Rahman, M. Mazaheri, H. Thompson, L.D. Knibbs, C. Jeong, G. Evans, W. Nei, A. Ding, L. Qiao, et al. 2019. Ultrafine particles and PM2.5 in the air of cities around the world: Are they representative of each other? Environ. Int. 129:118–35. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2019.05.21.
  • de Weger, L. A., K. C. Bergmann, A. Rantio-Lehtimäki, A. Dahl, J. T. Buters, J. Déchamp, and J. Belmonte. 2013. Impact of pollen. In Allergenic pollen, A review of the production, release, distribution and health impacts, Chap. 6., ed. M. Sofiev and K. C. Bergmann, 256. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-94-007-4880-4e-ISBN 978-94-94-007-4881-1. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4881-1_6.
  • Delort, A. M., P. Amato, M. Sancelme, and P. Laj. 2011. Do microorganisms play a role in cloud chemistry? In Aerobiological monographs. Towards a comprehensive vision, ed. B. Clot, P. Comtois, and B. Escamilla-Garcia, Vol. 1, 133–53. Canada: MeteoSwiss (CH) and Université de Montréal. ISBN 978-2-8399-0466-7.
  • Donaldson, K., L. Tran, A. Jimenez, R. Duffin, D. E. Newby, N. Mills, W. Macnee, and V. Stone. 2005. Combustion-derived nanoparticles: A review of their toxicology following inhalation exposure. Particle. Fibre Toxicol. 2:10. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-2-10.
  • Duncan, B. N., L. N. Lamsal, A. M. Thompson, Y. Yoshida, Z. Lu, D. G. Streets, M. M. Hurwitz, and K. E. Pickering. 2016. A space-based, high-resolution view of notable changes in urban NOx pollution around the world (2005–2014). J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 121 (2):976–96. doi:10.1002/2015JD024121.
  • ECCC (Environment and Climate Change Canada). 2017. National inventory report 1990-2015. Greenhouse gas sources and sinks in Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/climate-change/greenhouse-gas-emissions/inventory.html.
  • ECCC (Environment and Climate Change Canada). 2019. National pollutant release inventory: Facility search. Accessed October 16, 2019. http://ec.gc.ca/inrp-npri/donnees-data/index.cfm?lang=En.
  • EFCA (European Federation of Clean Air and Environmental Protection Associations). 2019. Ultrafine particles – air quality and climate. 7th International Symposium, Brussels, May 15-16. http://ufp.efca.net.
  • Efstathiou, C., S. Isukapalli, and P. Georgopoulos. 2011. A mechanistic modeling system for estimating large scale emissions and transport of pollen and co-allergens. Atmos. Environ. 45 (13):2260–76. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.12.008.
  • Emami, F., M. Masiol, and P. K. Hopke. 2018. Air pollution at Rochester, NY: Long-term trends and multivariate analysis of upwind SO2 source impacts. Sci. Total Environ. 612:1506–15. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.026.
  • EPA. 2008. Review of the impacts of climate variability and change on aeroallergens and their associated effects. Report EPA/600/R-06/164F. Accessed January 31, 2017. www.epa.gov.
  • EPA. 2010. Emerging contaminants- nanomaterials. Accessed September 2, 2019. https://archive.epa.gov/region9/mediacenter/web/pdf/emerging_contaminant_nanomaterials.pdf.
  • EPA. 2011. Technical support document, national-scale air toxics assessment, NATA TSD. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed January 31, 2017. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-12/documents/2011-nata-tsd.pdf.
  • EPA. 2012. What are the six common air pollutants? Accessed October 20, 2019. www.epa.gov/air/urbanair.
  • Erisman, J. W., A. Bleeker, J. Galloway, and M. S. Sutton. 2007. Reduced nitrogen in ecology and the environment. Environmen. Pollut. 150:140–49. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.033.
  • Fiore, A. M., N. Vaishali, and E. M. Leibensperger. 2015. Air quality and climate connections. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 65 (6):645–85. doi:10.1080/10962247.2015.1040526.
  • Fleuti, E. 2008. Local air quality: A growing concern to airport management. J. Airport Manage. 2 (2):115–19.
  • Frampton, M. W., and D. Q. Rich. 2016. Does particle size matter? Ultrafine particles and hospital visits in Eastern Europe. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 194 (10):1180–82. doi:10.1164/rccm.201606-1164ED.
  • Franco, B., E. Mahieu, L. K. Emmons, Z. A. Tzompa-Sosa, E. V. Fischer, K. Sudo, B. Bovy, S. Conway, D. Griffin, J. W. Hannigan, et al. 2016. Evaluating ethane and methane emissions associated with the development of oil and natural gas extraction in North America. Environ. Res. Lett. 11:044010. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044010.
  • Frölich-Nowoisky, J., C. J. Kampf, B. Weber, J. A. Huffman, C. Pöhlker, M. O. Andreae, N. Lang-Yona, S. M. Burrows, S. S. Gunthe, W. Elbert, et al. 2016. Bioaerosols in the earth system: Climate, health, and ecosystem interactions. Atmos. Res. 182:346–76. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.07.018.
  • Fuller, R., E. Rahoma, S. Fisher, J. Caravanos, D. Webb, D. Kass, T. Matte, and P. Landrigan. 2018. Comment: Pollution and non-communicable disease: Time to end the neglect, vol 2. www.thelancet.com/planetary-health.
  • Galarneau, E., D. Wang, E. Dabek-Zlotorzynska, M. Siu, V. Celo, M. Tardif, D. Harnish, and Y. Jiang. 2016. Air toxics in Canada measured by the national air pollution surveillance (NAPS) program and their relation to ambient air quality guidelines. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 66 (2):184–200. doi:10.1080/10962247.2015.1096863.
  • Galloway, J. N., A. R. Townsend, J. W. Erisman, M. Bekunda, C. Zucong, J. R. Freney, L. A. Martinelli, S. P. Seitzinger, and M. A. Sutton. 2008. Transformation of the nitrogen cycle: Recent trends, questions, and potential solutions. Science 320:889–92. doi:10.1126/science.1136674.
  • Garneau, M., M. C. Breton, F. Guay, L. Héguy, D. Chaumont, and M. F. Sottile. 2005. Hausse des concentrations des particules organiques (pollen et spores) et ses conséquences potentielles sur les maladies respiratoires des populations vulnérables en milieu urbain et projection des impacts sous l’effet du changement climatique. Projet A-571. Rapport final présenté au Fonds d’action au changement climatique, Ministère des Ressources Naturelles du Canada.
  • GBD (Global Burden of Disease 2015). 2016. Mortality and causes of death collaborators. Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2015. Lancet 388:1459–544. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1.
  • Gervais, P. 1994. Maladie asthmatique et aggression chimique. Rev. Fr. Allergol. 34 (5):403–07. doi:10.1016/S0335-7457(05)80250-3.
  • Gomes, A. R., C. Justino, T. Rocha-Santos, A. C. Freitas, A. C. Duarte, and R. Pereira. 2017. Review of the ecotoxicological effects of emerging contaminants to soil biota. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A 52 (10):992–1007. doi:10.1080/10934529.2017.1328946.
  • Gonet, T., and B. A. Maher. 2019. Magnetic properties of brake wear emissions. Scientific poster presented at IUGG Symposium, Montreal, Canada, July 8-18.
  • González, Y., S. Rodríguez, J. C. Guerra García, J. L. Trujillo, and R. García. 2011. Ultrafine particles pollution in urban coastal air due to ship emissions. Atmos. Env. 45:4907–14. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.06.002.
  • Government of Canada. 2018. Follow-up report to the house of commons standing committee on environment and sustainable development on the Canadian environmental protection act, 1999. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/canadian-environmental-protection-act-registry/review/standing-committee-report-cepa-2018.html.
  • Grandjean, P., and P. J. Landrigan. 2006. Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet 368:2167–78. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69665-7.
  • Gribble, G. W. 2009. Naturally occurring organohalogen compounds. New York, USA: Springer. ISBN 978-3211993248.
  • Guenther, A., T. Karl, P. Harley, C. Wiedinmyer, P. J. Palmer, and C. Geron. 2006. Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN (Model of emissions of gases and aerosols from nature). Atmos. Chem. Phys. 6:3181–210. doi:10.5194/acp-6-3181-2006.
  • Gwinn, M. R., and V. Vallyathan. 2006. Nanoparticles: Health effects – Pros and Cons. Environ. Health Perspect. 114 (12):1818–25. doi:10.1289/ehp.8871.
  • Hak, C., I. Pundt, S. Trick, C. Kern, U. Platt, J. Dommen, B. R. J. Larsen, J. Mellqvist, A. Strandberg, Y. Yu, et al. 2005. Intercomparison of four different in-situ techniques for ambient formaldehyde measurements in urban air. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 5 (11):2881–900. doi:10.5194/acp-5-2881-2005.
  • Harrison, R. M., M. Masiol, and S. Vardoulakis. 2015. Civil aviation, air pollution and human health. Environ. Res. Lett. 10:041001. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/041001.
  • Health Canada. 2017. Health impacts of air pollution in Canada. An estimate of premature mortalities. Accessed May 30, 2019. http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/sc-hc/H144-51-2017-eng.pdf.
  • HEI, Review Panel. 2013. Understanding the health effects of ambient ultrafine particles. Health Effect Institute. HEI (Health Effects Institute), Boston, MA. https://www.healtheffects.org/publication/understanding-health-effects-ambient-ultrafine-particles.
  • Helmig, D., S. Rossabi, J. Hueber, P. Tans, S. A. Montzka, K. Masarie, K. Thoning, C. Plass-Duelmer, A. Claude, L. J. Carpenter, et al. 2016. Reversal of global atmospheric ethane and propane trends largely due to U.S. oil and natural gas production. Nat. Geosci. 9:490–95. doi:10.1383ngeoO2721.
  • HIS. 2017. GDI market penetration. Accessed 29 September, 2019. https://www.aftonchemical.com/Generic/PFI-vs-GDI?lang=fr-FR#.
  • Hofman, J., J. Staelens, R. Cordell, C. Stroobants, N. Zikova, S. M. L. Hama, K. P. Wyche, G. P. A. Kos, S. Van Der Zee, K. L. Smallbone, et al. 2016. Ultrafine particles in four European urban environments: Results from a new continuous long-term monitoring network. Atmos. Environ. 136:68–81. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.04.010.
  • Höpfner, M., R. Volkamer, U. Grabowski, M. Grutter, J. Orphal, G. Stiller, T. von Clarmann, and G. Wetzel. 2016. First detection of ammonia (NH3) in the Asian summer monsoon upper troposphere. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16 (22):14357. doi:10.5194/acp-16p-16-14357-2016.
  • Hsu, H. H., G. Adamkiewicz, E. Andres Houseman, D. Zarubiak, J. D. Spengler, and J. I. Levy. 2013. Contributions of aircraft arrivals and departures to ultrafine particle counts near Los Angeles international airport. Sci. Total Environ. 444:347–55. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.12.010.
  • Huang, T., B. Gao, H. Xiao-Kang, L. Xing, R. Well, P. Christie, L. R. Bakken, and J. Xiao-Tang. 2014. Ammonia-oxidation as an engine to generate nitrous oxide in an intensively managed calcareous Fluvio-aquic soils. Sci. Rep. 4:3950. doi:10.1038/srep03950.
  • Hudda, N., T. Gould, K. Hartin, T. V. Larson, and S. A. Fruin. 2014. Emissions from an international airport increase particle number concentrations 4-fold at 10 km downwind. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48:6628–35. doi:10.1021/es5001566.
  • IARC. 1987. Monographs on the evaluation of Carcinogenic risk to humans. Arsenic and arsenic compound. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
  • IARC. 1999. Re-evaluation of some organic chemicals, hydrazine and hydrogen peroxide (Part 1, Part 2, Part 3). IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Volume 71. Accessed October 16, 2019. https://publications.iarc.fr/89.
  • IARC. 2006. Monographs on the evaluation of Carcinogenic risk to humans. Formaldehyde. Accessed August 3, 2019. https://monographs.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/mono100F-29.pdf.
  • IARC. 2018. 1,3-Butadiene. Accessed April 16, 2019. https://monographs,iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/mono71-8.pdf.
  • ICAO – International Civil Aviation Organization. 1993. Environmental protection. Annex 16, Vol. II, 2nd ed. Montreal, Canada: Aircraft Engine Emissions.
  • IEA (International Energy Agency). 2019. Commentary: Growing preference for SUVs challenges emissions reductions in passenger car market. https://www.iea.org/newsroom/news/2019/october/growing-preference-for-suvs-challenges-emissions-reductions-in-passenger-car-mark.html.
  • IISD (International Institute for Sustainable Development). 2017. Costs of pollution in Canada. Measuring the impacts on families, business and governments. ISBN 978-1-894784-76-4. Accessed April 16, 2019. https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/costs-of-pollution-in-canada.pdf.
  • IPCC. 1999. Aviation and the global atmosphere. In Prepared in collaboration with the scientific assessment panel to the Montreal protocol on substances that Deplete the Ozone layer, ed. J. E. Penner, D. H. Lister, D. J. Griggs, D. J. Dokken, and M. McFarland. U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Accessed April 2, 2019. http://www.cambridge.org/ch/academic/collections/ipccreports.
  • IPCC. 2013. Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. In Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, ed. T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, and P. M. Midgley, 1535. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Jacobson, M. 2002. Atmospheric pollution. History, science and regulation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  • Jaenicke, R., S. Matthias-Maser, and S. Gruber. 2007. Omnipresence of biological material in the atmosphere. Environ. Che. 4:217–20. doi:10.1071/EN07021.
  • Jaffe, D. A., and L. Zhang. 2017. Meteorological anomalies lead to elevated O3 in the western U.S. in June 2015. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44:1990–97. doi:10.1002/2016GL072010.
  • Jelks, M. 1987. Allergy plants: That cause sneezing and wheezing, 64. World Wide Publication. ISBN: 0-911977 04-X.
  • Jeong, C. H., P. K. Hopke, D. Chalupa, and M. Utell. 2004. Characteristics of nucleation and growth events of ultrafine particles in Rochester, NY. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38:1933–40. doi:10.1021/es034811p.
  • Jia, C., and S. Batterman. 2010. A critical review of naphthalene sources and exposures relevant to indoor and outdoor. Air Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 7 (7):2903–39. doi:10.3390/ijerph7072903.
  • Kelly, F. J., and J. C. Fussell. 2012. Size, source and chemical composition as determinants of toxicity attributable to ambient particulate matter. Atmos. Environ. 6:504–26. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.06.039.
  • Keramydas, C., G. Pappadopoulos, L. Ntziachristos, T.-S. Lo, K.-L. Ng, H. L. Anson Wong, and C. Ka-Lok Wong. 2018. Real-world measurement of hybrid buses fuel consumption and pollutant emissions in a metropolitan urban road network. Energies 11:2569. doi:10.3390/en11102569.
  • Keuken, M. P., M. Moerman, P. Zandveld, J. S. Henzing, and G. Hoek. 2015. Total and size-resolved particle number and black carbon concentrations in urban areas near Schipol airport (the Netherlands). Atmos. Environ. 104:132–42. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.01.015.
  • Klein, T., J. Kukkonen, A. Dahl, E. Bossioli, A. Baklanov, A. F. Vik, P. Agnew, K. D. Karatzas, and M. Sofiev. 2012. Interactions of physical, chemical, and biological weather calling for an integrated approach to assessment, forecasting and communication of air quality. Ambio 41:851–64. doi:10.1007/s/13280-012-0288-z.
  • Knol, A. B., J. J. de Hartog, H. Boogaard, P. Slottje, J. P. van der Sluijs, E. Lebret, F. R. Cassee, J. A. Wardekker, J. G. Ayres, P. J. Borm, et al. 2009. Expert elicitation on ultrafine particles: Likelihood of health effects and causal pathways. Part. Fibre Toxicol. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-6-19.
  • Knox, R. B., C. Suphioglu, P. Taylor, R. Desai, H. C. Watson, J. L. Peng, and L. A. Bursill. 1997. Major grass pollen allergen Lol p1 binds to diesel exhaust particles: Implications for asthma and air pollution. Clin. Exp. Allergy 27:246–51. PMID: 9088650.
  • Kumar, P., A. Robins, S. Vardoulakis, and R. Britter. 2010. A review of the characteristics of nanoparticles in the urban atmosphere and the prospects for developing regulatory controls. Atmos. Environ. 44:5035–52. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.08.016.
  • Kumar, P., L. Pirjola, M. Ketzel, and R. M. Harrison. 2013. Nanoparticle emissions from 11 non-vehicle exhaust sources- A review. Atmos. Environ. 67:252–77. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.11.011.
  • Laaidi, K., M. Laaidi, and J. P. Besancenot. 2002. Synergie entre pollens et polluants chimiques de l’air: Les risques croisés. Environ. Risques et santé 1 (1):42–49.
  • Laaidi, M., T. Chinet, and P. Aegerter. 2011. Allergies au pollen, pollution et climat: Revue de la littérature. Rev. Fr. Allergol. 51:622–28. doi:10.1016/j.reval.2011.05.004.
  • Lacroix, G. 2005. Allergies respiratoires, pollens et polluants. Archives des Maladies Professionnelles et de L’Environnement Elsevier Masson 66:584–91. Ineris-00961897. doi:10.1016/S1775-8785(05)79161-X.
  • Lee, D. S., D. W. Fahey, P. M. Forster, P. J. Newton, R. C. N. Wit, L. L. Lim, B. Owen, and R. Sausen. 2009. Aviation and global climate change in the 21st century. Atmos. Environ. 43 (22–23):3520–37. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.04.024.
  • Lee, J., and J. Mo. 2011. Analysis of technological innovation and environmental performance improvement in aviation sector. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 8:3777–95. doi:10.3390/ijerph8093777.
  • Lee, Y. N., X. Zhou, L. I. Kleinman, L. J. Nunnermacker, S. R. Springston, P. H. Daum, L. Newman, W. G. Keigley, M. W. Holdren, C. W. Spicer, et al. 1998. Atmospheric chemistry and distribution of formaldehyde and several multioxygenated carbonyl compounds during the 1995 Nashville/Middle Tennessee Ozone study. Journal of Geophys. Research. doi:10.1029/98JD01251.
  • Légifrance. 2010. Code de l’environnement. Accessed 28 March, 2019. http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr.
  • Lelielveld, J., P. J. Crutzen, and F. J. Dentener. 1998. Changing concentration, lifetime and climate forcing of atmospheric methane. Tellus B 50:128–50. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.1998.t01-1-00002.x.
  • Lelielveld, J., S. Evans, D. Fnais, D. Giannadaki, and A. Pozzer. 2015. The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale. Nature 525 (7569):367. doi:10.1038/nature15371.
  • Levesque, S., M. J. Surace, J. McDonald, and M. L. Block. 2011. Air pollution & the brain: Subchronic diesel exhaust exposure causes neuroinflammation and elevates early markers of neurodegenerative disease. J. Neuroinflammation. 8:105. doi:10.1186/1742-2094-8-105.
  • Liggio, J., S. G. Moussa, J. Wentzell, A. Darlington, P. Liu, A. Leithead, K. Hayden, J. O’Brien, R. L. Mittermeier, R. Staebler, et al. 2017. Understanding the primary emissions and secondary formation of gaseous organic acids in the oil sands region of Alberta, Canada. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17:8411–27. doi:10.5194/acp-17-8411-2017.
  • Liggio, J., S.-M. Li, K. Hayden, Y. M. Taha, C. Stroud, A. Darlington, B. D. Drollette, M. Gordon, P. Lee, P. Liu, et al. 2016. Oil sands operations as a large source of secondary organic aerosols. Nature 534:91–94. doi:10.1038/nature17646.
  • Liggio, J., S.-M. Li, R. M. Staebler, K. Hayden, A. Darlington, R. L. Mittermeier, J. O’Brien, R. McLaren, M. Wolde, D. Worthy, et al. 2019. Measured Canadian oil sands CO2 emissions are higher than estimates made using internationally recommended method. Nat. Commun. 10:1863. doi:10.1038/41467-019-09714-9.
  • Liu, M., X. Huang, Y. Song, T. Xu, S. Wang, Z. Wu, M. Hu, L. Zhang, Q. Zhang, Y. Pan, et al. 2018. Rapid SO2 emission reductions significantly increase tropospheric ammonia concentrations over the North China plain. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18:17933–43. doi:10.5194/acp-18-17933-2018.
  • Liu, T., X. Wang, B. Wang, X. Ding, W. Deng, S. Lü, and Y. Zhang. 2014. Emission factor of ammonia (NH3) from on-road vehicles in China: Tunnel tests in urban Guangzhou. Environ. Res. Lett. 9 (6):064027. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/6/064027.
  • Lopes, M., A. Russo, J. Monjardino, C. Gouveia, and F. Ferreira. 2019. Monitoring of ultrafine particles in the surrounding urban area of a civilian airport. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 10:1454–63. doi:10.1016/j.apr.2019.04.002.
  • LRTAP (Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution). 2016. Scientific assessment report 2016: North America. Accessed August 3, 2019). https://www.unece.org/index.php?id=42947.
  • Lurmann, F. W., A. C. Lloyd, and R. Atkinson. 1986. A chemical mechanism for use in long-range transport/acid deposition computer modelling. J. Geophys. Res. 91:10905–36. doi:10.1029/JD091iD10p10905.
  • MacDonald, A. M., P. A. Makar, K. G. Anlauf, K. Hayden, J. W. Bottenheim, D. Wang, and T. Dann. 2001. Summer formaldehyde at a high elevation site in Quebec. J. Geophys. Res. 106:32,361–32,374. doi:10.1029/2001JD000513.
  • Maher, B. A., I. Ahmed, V. Karloukovski, D. A. MacLAren, P. G. Foulds, D. Allsop, D. Mann, R. Torres-Jardón, and L. Calderon-Garcidueñas. 2016. Magnetite pollution nanoparticles in the human brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 113 (39):10797–801. doi:10.173/pnas.1605941113.
  • Majd, A., A. Chehregani, M. Moin, M. Gholami, S. Kohno, T. Nabe, and M. A. Shariatzade. 2004. The effects of air pollution on structures, proteins and allergenicity of pollen grains. Aerobiologia 20:111–18. doi:10.1023/B:AERO.0000032950.12169.38.
  • Makar, P. A., A. Akingunola, J. Aherne, A. S. Cole, Y. Aklilu, J. Zhang, I. Wong, K. Hayden, S.-M. Li, J. Kirk, et al. 2018. Estimates of exceedances of critical loads for acidifying deposition in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18:9897–927. doi:10.5194/acp-18-9897-2018.
  • Marks, G. B., and R. K. Bush. 2007. It’s blowing in the wind: New insights into thunderstorm-related asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immuno. 120:530–32. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2007.07.012.
  • Masiol, M., and R. M. Harrison. 2014. Aircraft engine exhaust emissions and other airport-related contributions to ambient air pollution: A review. Atmos. Env. 95:409–55. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.05.070.
  • Masiol, M., S. Squizzato, D. C. Chalupa, M. J. Utell, D. Q. Rich, and P. K. Hopke. 2018. Long-term trends in submicron particle concentrations in a metropolitan area of the northeastern United States. Sci. Total Environ. 633:59–70. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.151.
  • May, D. 2019. Mitigation of ultrafine particles from transportation – International and domestic policy overview. Presented at the Workshop on Ultrafine Particulate Emissions from Transportation, Toronto: University of Toronto, September 18.
  • McKenzie, L. M., R. Guo, R. Z. Witter, D. A. Savitz, L. S. Newman, and J. L. Adate. 2014. Birth outcomes and maternal residential proximity to natural gas development in rural Colorado. Environ. Health Perspect. 122:412–17. doi:10.1289/ehp.1306722.
  • McLinden, C. A., V. Fioletov, N. A. Krotkov, C. Li, K. F. Boersma, and C. Adams. 2016. A decade of change in NO2 and SO2 over the Canadian oil sands as seen from space. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50:331–37. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b04985.
  • MDDELCC (Ministère du Développement Durable, de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les Changements Climatiques). 2017. Impact des travaux de décontamination sur la qualité de l’air ambiant au Lac Mégantic. Bilan 2015. Accessed November 20, 2019. http://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/air/ambiant/lac-megantic/Lac-Megantic-impact-decontamination.pdf.
  • Michaels, D. 2008. Doubt is their product: How industry’s assault on science threatens your health. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
  • Miguel, A. G., P. E. Taylor, J. House, M. M. Glovsky, and R. C. Flagan. 2006. Meteorological influences on respirable fragment release from Chinese Elm pollen. Aerosol Sci. Techn. 40:690–96. doi:10.1080/02786820600798869.
  • Mohler, O., P. J. DeMott, G. Vali, and Z. Levin. 2007. Microbiology and atmospheric processes: The role of biological particles in cloud physics. Biogeosciences 4:1059–71. doi:10.5194/bg-4-1059-2007.
  • Molfino, N. A., S. C. Wright, I. Katz, S. Tarlo, F. Silverman, P. A. McClean, J. P. Szalai, M. Raizenne, A. S. Slutsky, and N. Zamel. 1991. Effect of low concentrations of ozone on inhaled allergen responses in asthmatic subjects. Lancet 338:199–203. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(91)90346-q.
  • Moore, R. H., K. L. Thornhill, B. Weinzierl, D. Sauer, E. D’Ascoli, J. Kim, M. Lichtenstern, M. Scheibe, B. Beaton, A. J. Beyersdorf, et al. 2017. Biofuels blending reduces particles emissions from aircraft engines at cruise conditions. Nature 543:411–15. doi:10.1038/nature21420.
  • Moore, R. H., M. Shook, A. Beyersdorf, C. Corr, S. Herndon, K. Berk, R. Miake-Lye, K. Lee Thornhill, E. L. Winstead., Z. Yu, et al. 2015. Influence of jet fuel composition on aircraft engine emissions: A synthesis of aerosol emissions data from the NASA APEX, AAFEX, and ACCESS missions. Energy Fuels 29 (4):2591–600. doi:10.1021/ef502618w.
  • Moravek, A., J. G. Murphy, A. Hrdina, J. C. Lin, C. Pennell, A. Franchin, A. M. Middlebrook, D. L. Fibiger, C. C. Womack, E. E. McDuffie, et al. 2019. Wintertime spatial distribution of ammonia and its emission sources in the Great Salt Lake region. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. doi:10.5194/acp-2019-266.
  • Morawska, L., Z. Ristovski, E. R. Jayaratne, D. U. Keogh, and X. Ling. 2008. Ambient nano and ultrafine particles from motor vehicles emissions: Characteristics, ambient processing and implications on human exposure. Atmos. Env. 42 (35):8113–38. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.07.050.
  • Morgenstern, V., A. Zutavern, J. Cyrys, I. Brockow, S. Koletzko, U. Kramer, H. Behrendt, O. Herbarth, A. von Berg, C. P. Bauer, et al. 2008. Atopic diseases, allergic sensitization, and exposure to traffic-related air pollution in children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 177 (12):1331–37. doi:10.1164/rccm.200701-036OC.
  • NAS (National Academy of Sciences). 2016. The future of atmospheric chemistry research: Remembering yesterday, understanding today and anticipating tomorrow. Washington DC: The National Academic Press. doi:10.17226/235730.
  • Nel, A. E., D. Diaz-Sanchez, D. NG., T. Hiura, and A. Saxon. 1998. Enhancement of allergic inflammation by the interaction between diesel exhaust particles and the immune system. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 102:539–54. doi:10.1016/s0091-6749(98)70269-6.
  • NRDC (National Research Defense Council). 2015. Sneezing and wheezing. How climate change could increase ragweed allergies, air pollution and asthma. Accessed October 20, 2019. https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/sneezing-report-2015.pdf.
  • O’Dowd, C., and G. de Leeuw. 2007. Marine aerosol production: A review of the current knowledge. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.A. 365:1753–74. doi:10.1098/rsta.2007.2043.
  • O’Sullivan, D., B. J. Murray, J. F. Ross, T. F. Whale, H. C. Price, J. D. Atkinson, and N. S. Umo. 2015. The relevance of nanoscale biological fragments for ice nucleation in clouds. Sci. Rep. 5. doi:10.1038/srep08082.
  • Oberdörster, G., E. Oberdörster, and J. Oberdörster. 2005. Nanotoxicology: An emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 113:823–39. doi:10.1289/ehp.7339.
  • Oberdörster, G., J. Ferin, and B. E. Lehnert. 1994. Correlation between particle size, in vivo particle persistence, and lung injury. Environ. Health Perspect. 102 (suppl 5):173–79. doi:10.1289/ehp.102-1567252.
  • Oberdörster, G., R. M. Gelein, J. Ferin, and B. Weiss. 1995. Association of particulate air pollution and acute mortality: Involvement of ultrafine particles? Inhal. Toxicol. 7 (1):111–24. doi:10.3109/08958379509014275.
  • Oberdörster, G., Z. Sharp, V. Atudore, A. Elder, R. Gelein, A. Lunts, W. Kreyling, and C. Cox. 2002. Extrapulmonary translocation of ultrafine carbon particles following whole-body inhalation exposure of rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 65 (20):1531–43. doi:10.1080/00984100290071658.
  • Oberdörster, G, Z. Sharp, V. Atudorei, A. Elder, R. Gelein, W. Keyling, and C. Cox. 2004. Translocation of inhaled ultrafine particles to the brain. Inhal. Toxicol. 16:437–45. doi:10.1080/08958370490439597.
  • Ohlwein, S., R. Kappeler, M. K. Joss, N. Künzli, and B. Hoffmann. 2019. Health effects of ultrafine particles: A systematic literature review update of epidemiological evidence. Int. J. Public Health. 64 (4):547–59. doi:10.1007/s00038-019-01202-7.
  • Osborne, N. J., I. S. Alcock, and I. E. Fleming. 2017. Pollen exposure and hospitalization due to asthma exacerbations: Daily time series in a European city. Int. J. Biomet. 61 (10):1837–48. doi:10.1007/s00484-017-1369-2.
  • Parker, J. D., L. J. Akinbami, and T. J. Woodruff. 2009. Air pollution and childhood respiratory allergies in the United States. Environ. Health Perspect. 117 (1):140–47. doi:10.1289/ehp.11497.
  • Parrish, D. D., H. B. Singh, L. Molina, and S. Madronich. 2011. Air quality progress in North American megacities: A review. Atmos. Environ. 45:7015–25. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.09.039.
  • Peltre, G. 1998. Inter-relationship between allergenic pollens and air pollution. Allerg. Immunol. 30 (10):324–26. PMID:9972354.
  • Petsko, G. A. 2006. Comment. Genome Biol. 7:108. doi:10.1186/gb-2006-7-5-108.
  • Petzold, A., R. Marsh, M. Johnson, M. Miller, Y. Sevcenco, D. Delhaye, A. Ibrahim, P. Williams, H. Bauer, A. Crayford, et al. 2011. Evaluation of methods for measuring particulate matter emissions from gas turbines. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45:3562–68. doi:10.1021/es103969v.
  • Pieters, N., G. Koppen, M. Van Poppel, S. De Prins, B. Cox, E. Dons, V. Nelen, L. Int Panis, M. Plusquin, G. Schoeters, et al. 2015. Blood pressure and same-day exposure to air pollution at school: Associations with nano-sized to coarse PM in children. Environ. Health Perspect. 123 (7):737–42. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408121.
  • Pinder, R. W., P. J. Adams, and S. N. Pandis. 2007. Ammonia emission controls as a cost-effective strategy for reducing atmospheric particulate matter in the eastern United States. Environ. Sci. Technology. 41:380–86. doi:10.1021/es060379a.
  • Pollution Probe. 2019. Transportation program overview. Presented at the Workshop on Ultrafine Particulate Emissions from Transportation, Toronto: University of Toronto, September 18.
  • Pope, C. A., III, R. T. Burnett, D. Michael, J. Thun, E. E. Calle, D. Krewski, K. Ito, and G. D. Thurston. 2002. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 287 (9):1132–41. doi:10-1001/pubs.JAMA-ISSN-0098-7484-287-9-joc11435.
  • Portejoie, S., J. Martinez, and G. Landmann. 2002. Ammonia of farm origin: impact on human and animal health and on the natural habitat. Internal report AGRIS Institute. Accessed June 2, 2018. http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=FR2002003459.
  • Puc, M., D. Kotrych, A. Lipiec, P. Rapiejko, and G. Siergiejko. 2016. Birch pollen grains without cytoplasmic content in the air of Szczecin and Bialystok. Alergoprofil 12 (2):101–05.
  • Quarg. 1996. Airborne particulate matter in the United Kingdom. Third report of the Quality of Urban Air Review Group, Department of the Environment, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, England. ISBN 0 9520771 3 2.
  • Rahim, M. F., D. Pal, and P. A. Ariya. 2019. Physicochemical studies of aerosols at montreal trudeau airport: The importance of airborne nanoparticles containing metal contaminants. Environmen. Pollut. 246:734–44. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2018.12.050.
  • Rantio-Lehtimäki, A., M. Viander, and A. Koivikko. 1994. Airborne birch pollen antigens in different particle sizes. Clin. Exp. Allergy 24:23–28. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.1994.tb00912.x.
  • Record. 2012. Substances émergentes, polluants émergents dans les déchets. Analyse et prospective (in French). Study 10-0143/1A. Accessed April 16, 2019. https://www.record-net.org/storage/etudes/10-0143-1A/rapport/Rapport_record10-0143_1A.pdf.
  • Reeves, F. 2011. Planète Coeur. Santé cardiaque et environnement. Éditions MultiMondes et Éditions CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Canada.
  • Reid, N., D. Yap, and R. Bloxam. 2008. The potential role of background ozone on current and emerging air issues: An overview. Air Qual. Atmos. Health 1:19–29. doi:10.1007/s11869-008-0005-z.
  • Ress, N. B., B. J. Chou, R. A. Renne, J. A. Dill, R. A. Miller, J. H. Roycroft, J. R. Hailey, J. K. Haseman, J. R. Bucher. 2003. Carcinogenicity of inhaled vanadium pentoxide in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice. Toxicol. Sci. 74 (2):287–96. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfg136.
  • Richardson, S. D., and T. A. Ternes. 2018. Water analysis: Emerging contaminants and current issues. Anal. Chem. 90:398–428. doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.7b04577.
  • Riley, E. A., T. Gould, K. Hartin, S. A. Fruin, C. D. Simpson, M. G. Yost, and T. Larson. 2016. Ultrafine particle size as a tracer for aircraft turbine emissions. Atmos. Environ. 139:20–29. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.05.016.
  • Ring, J., U. Krämer, T. Schäfer, and H. Behrendt. 2001. Why are allergies increasing? Curr. Opin. Immunol. 13:701–08. PMID:11677093. doi:10.1016/S0952-7915(01)00282-5.
  • Robichaud, A. 2019. Synergie entre la pollution anthropique et biologique et impacts sur la santé respiratoire au Québec durant le printemps. http://lodel.irevues.inist.fr/pollution-atmospherique/index.php?id=6767.
  • Robichaud, A., A. Cole, M. D. Moran, A. Lupu, M. Shaw, G. Roy, M. Beauchemin, V. Fortin, and R. Vet. 2018. Total deposition maps evaluated from measurement-model fusion in North America (ADAGIO project). Paper presented at the International Technical Meeting in Air Quality, Ottawa, Canada, May 14–18.
  • Robichaud, A., and P. Comtois. 2019. Environmental factors and asthma hospitalization in Montreal, Canada, during spring 2006–2008: A synergy perspective. Air Qual. Atmos. Health 12:1495–509. doi:10.1007/s11869-019-00744-2.
  • Robichaud, A., and R. Ménard. 2014. Multi-year objective analyses of warm season ground-level ozone and PM2.5 over North America using real-time observations and Canadian operational air quality models. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13 (5):13967–4035. doi:10.5194/acpd-13-13967-2013.
  • Robichaud, A., R. Ménard, Y. Zaïtseva, and D. Anselmo. 2016. Multi-pollutant surface objective analyses and mapping of air quality health index over North America. Air Qual. Atmos. Health 9:743–59. doi:10.1007/s11869-015-0385-9.
  • Rodriguez, S., R. Van Dingenen, J.-P. Putaud, A. Dell’Acqua, J. Pey, X. Querol, A. Alastuey, S. Chenery, K.-F. Ho, R. Harrison, et al. 2007. A study on the relationship between mass concentrations, chemistry and number size distribution of urban fine aerosols in Milan, Barcelona and London. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 7:2217–32. doi:10.5194/acp-7-2217-2007.
  • Romieu, I., R. Garcia-Esteban, J. Sunyer, C. Rios, M. Alcaraz-Zubeldia, S. R. Velasco, F. Holguin. 2008. The effect of supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on markers of oxidative stress in elderly exposed to PM2.5. Environ. Health Perspect. 116 (9):1237–42. doi:10.1289/ehp.10578.
  • Saenen, N. D., H. Bove, C. Steuwe, M. B. J. Roeffaers, E. B. Provost, W. Lefebvre, C. Vanpoucke, M. Ameloot, and T. S. Nawrot. 2017. Children’s urinary environmental carbon load. A novel marker reflecting residential ambient air pollution exposure? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 196 (7):873–81. doi:10.1164/rccm.201704-0797OC.
  • Saliba, G., R. Saleh, Y. Zhao, A. A. Presto, A. T. Lambe, B. Frodin, S. Sardar, H. Maldonado, C. Maddox, A. A. May, et al. 2017. Comparison of gasoline direct-injection (GDI) and port fuel injection (PFI) vehicle emissions: Emission certification standards, cold-start, secondary organic aerosol formation potential, and potential climate impacts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51:6542–52. doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b06509.
  • Sauvé, S., and M. Desrosiers. 2014. A review of what is an emerging contaminant. Chem. Cent. J. 8 (1):15. doi:10.1186/1752-153X-8-15.
  • Schwede, D. B., and G. G. Lear. 2014. A novel hybrid approach for estimating total deposition in the United States. Atmos. Environ. 92:207–20. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.04.00.
  • Seinfeld, J. H., and S. N. Pandis. 2006. Atmospheric chemistry and physics: From air pollution to climate change. 2nd ed. New-York: Wiley-Interscience.
  • Sénéchal, H., N. Visez, D. Charpin, Y. Shahali, G. Peltre, J. P. Biolley, F. Lhuissier, R. Couderc, O. Yamada, A. Malrat-Domenge, et al. 2015. A review of the effects of major atmospheric pollutants on pollen grains, pollen content and allergenicity. Sci. World J. 2015:1–29. doi:10.1155/2015/9402243.
  • Shephard, M. W., and K. E. Cady-Pereira. 2015. Cross-track infrared sounder (CrIS) satellite observations of tropospheric ammonia. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 8:1323–36. doi:10.5194/amt-8-1323-2015.
  • Silva, R. A., J. J. West, Y. Zhang, S. C. Anenberg, J. F. Lamarque, D. T. Shindell, W. J. Collins, S. Dalsoren, G. Faluvegi, G. Folberth, et al. 2013. Global premature mortality due to anthropogenic outdoor air pollution and the contribution of past climate change. Environ. Res. Lett. 8. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034005.
  • Simpson, I. J., J. E. Marrero, S. Batterman, S. Meinard, B. Barletta, and D. R. Blake. 2013. Air quality in the industrial heartland of Alberta, Canada and potential impacts on human health. Atmos. Environ. 81:702–09. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.09.017.
  • Simpson, I. J., N. J. Blake, B. Barletta, G. S. Diskin, H. E. Fuelberg, K. Gorham, L. G. Huey, S. Meinardi, F. S. Rowland, S. A. Vay, et al. 2010. Characterization of trace gases measured over Alberta oil sands mining operations: 76 speciated C2–C10 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), CO2, CH4, CO, NO, NO2, NOy, O3 and SO2. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10:11931–54. doi:10.5194/acp-10-11931-2010.
  • Sioris, C., C. McLinden, J. Dawson, B. Brisco, L. Fu, and T. Nunifu. 2018. AEP-ECCC workshop on current and emerging methods for satellite monitoring of the oil sands. Oil Sands Monitoring Program Technical Report Series No. 4. 19. ISBN: 978-1-4601-4195-3.
  • Small, M. J., P. C. Stern, E. Bomberg, S. M. Christopherson, B. D. Goldstein, A. L. Israel, R. B. Jackson, A. Krupnick, M. S. Mauter, J. Nash, et al. 2014. Risks and risk governance in unconventional shale gas development. Env. Sci. Tech. 48:8289–97. doi:10.1021/es502111u.
  • SOCAAR (Southern Ontario Centre for Atmospheric Aerosol Research). 2019. Near-road air pollution pilot study, University of Toronto. https://www.socaar.utoronto.ca/near-road-air-pollution-in-canada/.
  • Sofiev, M., and K. C. Bergmann. 2013. Allergenic pollen. A review of the production, release, distribution and health impacts, 256. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN978-94-007-4880-4e-ISBN 978-94-94-007-4881–1.
  • Stearns, R. C., G. G. K. Murthy, W. Skornik, V. Hatch, M. Katler, and J. J. Godleski. 1994. Detection of ultrafine copper oxide particles in the lungs of hamsters by electron spectroscopic imaging. In Proceedings of ICEM 13-PARIS, ed. B. Jouffrey and C. Colliex, 763–64. Paris: Les Editions de Physique.
  • Stettler, M. E. J., A. M. Boies, A. Petzold, and S. R. H. Barrett. 2013. Global civil aviation black carbon emissions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47 (18):10397–404. doi:10.1021/es401356v.
  • Stiglitz, J. E. 2019. People, power, and profits. New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company Inc.
  • Stroud, C. A., C. Zaganescu, J. Chen, C. A. McLinden, J. Zhang, and D. Wang. 2016. Toxic volatile organic air pollutants across Canada: Multi-year concentration trends, regional air quality modelling and source apportionment. J. Atmos. Chem. 73 (2):137–64. doi:10.1007/s10874-015-9319-z.
  • Sun, Q., A. Wang, X. Jin, A. Natanzon, D. Duquaine, R. D. Brook, J. G. Aguinaldo, Z. A. Fayad, V. Fuster, M. Lippmann, et al. 2005. Long-term air pollution exposure and acceleration of atherosclerosis and vascular inflammation in an animal model. J. Am. Medical Assoc. 294:23. doi:10.1001/jama.294.23.3003.
  • Tamburlini, G. 2002. Environmental hazards in specific settings and media: An overview. Chap. 2. In Children’s health and environment: A review of evidence. A joint report from the European Environment Agency and the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, ed. G. Tamburlini, O. S. von Ehrenstein, and R. Bertolini, 29–37. Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe. ISBN 92-9167-412-5.
  • Taylor, P. E., and H. Jonsson. 2004. Thunderstorm asthma. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 4 (5):409–13. PMID: 15283882. doi:10.1007/s11882-004-0092-3.
  • Taylor, P. E., R. C. Flagan, A. G. Miguel, R. Valenta, and M. Glovsky. 2004. Birch pollen rupture and the release of aerosols of respirable allergens. Clin. Exp. Allergy 34:1591–96. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2004.02078.x.
  • Taylor, P. E., R. C. Flagan, R. Valenta, and M. M. Glovsky. 2002. Release of allergens as respirable aerosols: A link between grass pollen and asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 109:51–56. doi:10.1067/mai.2002.120759.
  • Teichman, K. 2008. Accessed May 28, 2019. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2008/02/13/E8-2697/notice-of-availability-of-the-nanomaterial-research-strategy-external-review-draft-and-expert-peer.
  • Terzano, C., F. Di Stefano, V. Conti, E. Graziani, and A. Petroianni. 2010. Air pollution ultrafine particles: Toxicity beyond the lung. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 14:809–21. PMID: 21222367.
  • Thibaudon, M. 2007. Pollen, allergies et changements climatiques. Press. Therm. Climat. 144:117–20.
  • Touri, L., H. Marchetti, I. Sari-Minodier, N. Molinari, and P. Chanez. 2013. The airport atmospheric environment: respiratory health at work. Eur. Respir. Rev. 22 (128):124–30. doi:10.1183/09059180.00005712.
  • Unal, A., Y. Hu, M. E. Chang, M. T. Odman, and A. G. Russel. 2005. Airport related emissions and impacts on air quality: Application to the Atlanta international airport. Atmos. Environ. 39 (32):5787–98. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.05.051.
  • US/EPA. 1991. Integrated risk information system (IRIS). Chemical assessment summary. Acrylonitrile. CASRN 107-13-1. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C.
  • US/EPA. 2003. Integrated risk information system (IRIS). Chemical assessment summary. Hydrogen sulfide; CASRN 7783-06-4; Acrolein CASRN 107-02-8. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C.
  • US/EPA. 2005. List of air toxics in the 2005 NATA assessment. Accessed April 18, 2019. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-10/documents/2005-nata-pollutants.pdf.
  • US/EPA. 2011. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Chemical assessment summary. Trichloroethylene; CASRN 79-01-6, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C.
  • US/EPA. 2019. Integrated science assessment (ISA) for particulate matter (final report). Accessed February 19, 2020. https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-particulate-matter.
  • Van Damme, M., L. Clarisse, S. Whitburn, J. Hadji-Lazaro, D. Hurtmans, C. Clerbaux, and P. F. Coheur. 2018. Industrial and agricultural ammonia point sources exposed. Nature 564:99–103. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0747-1.
  • Van Donkelaar, A., R. V. Martin, M. Brauer, R. Kahn, R. Levy, C. Verduzzo, and P. J. Villeneuve. 2010. Global estimates of ambient fine particulate matter concentrations from satellite-based aerosol optical depth: Development and application. Env. Health. Perspec. 118 (6):847–55. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901623.
  • Vedal, S. 1997. Ambient particles and health: Lines that divide. J. Air. Waste Manage Assoc. 47:551–81. doi:10.1080/10473289.1997.10463922.
  • Vengosh, A., W. A. Mitch, and L. M. McKenzie. 2017. Environmental and human impacts of unconventional energy development. Editorial comment. Env. Science Tech. 51:10271–73. doi:10.1021/acs.est/7b04336.
  • Venkataraman, C., and J. Raymond. 1998. Estimating the lung deposition of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with multimodal urban aerosols. Inhal. Toxicol. 10:183–204. doi:10.1080/089583798197727.
  • Wakefield, J. C. 2008. Formaldehyde-General Information, Report by Health Protection Agency, CHAPD HQ, HPA Version 1. Accessed March 31, 2018. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/341377/hpa_formaldehyde_general_information_v1.pdf.
  • Wallace, J. 2019. UFPs from transportation: Sources and trends. Workshop on Ultrafine Particulate Emissions from Transportation, University of Toronto, Toronto, September 18.
  • Wang, P. T., M. Holloway, and N. Harkey. 2019. Formaldehyde trend analysis from satellite observations and ground measurements. Poster presented at IUGG conference, Montreal, Canada, July 18–28.
  • Weichenthal, S., E. Lavigne, M. F. Valois, M. Hatzopoulou, K. Van Ryswyk, M. Shekarrizfard, P. J. Villeneuve, M. S. Goldberg, and M. E. Parent. 2017. Spatial variations in ambient ultrafine particle concentrations and the risk of incident prostate cancer: A case-control study. Environ. Res. 156:374–80. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.03.035.
  • Weichenthal, S., K. V. Ryswyk, A. Goldstein, M. Shekarrizfar, and M. Hatzopoulou. 2016. Characterizing the spatial distribution of ambient ultrafine particles in Toronto, Canada: A land use regression model. Environmen. Pollut. 208:241–48. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2015.04.011.
  • Wentworth, G. R., J. G. Murphy, K. B. Benedict, E. J. Bangs, and J. L. Collett Jr. 2016. The role of dew as a night-time reservoir and morning source for atmospheric ammonia. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16:7435–49. doi:10.5194/acp-16-7435-20.
  • Westerdahl, D., S. A. Fruin, P. L. Fine, and C. Sioutas. 2008. The los angeles international airport as a source of ultra fine particles and other pollutants to nearby communities. Atmospheric Environment 42:3143–3155. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.006.
  • WHO. 2012b. Diesel engine exhaust carcinogenic. www.iarc.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/pr213_E.pdf.
  • WHO. 2013. Health risks of air pollution in Europe-HRAPIE project. New emerging risks to health from air pollution – Results from the survey of experts. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/air-quality/publications/2013/health-risks-of-air-pollution-in-europe-hrapie-project.-new-emerging-risks-to-health-from-air-pollution-results-from-the-survey-of-experts.
  • WHO. 2016a. WHO expert consultation: Available evidence for the future update of the WHO global air quality guidelines (AQGs). Meeting report, Bonn, Germany, September 29th – October 1st.
  • WHO. 2016b. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Outdoor air pollution, Vol. 109. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
  • WHO (Regional Office for Europe). 2012a. Health effects of black carbon. ISBN: 978 92 890 0265 3.
  • WHO (World Health Organization). 2001. 1,3-butadiene: Human health aspect. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 30, World Health Organization. Accessed August 3rd, 2019. http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/cicad/en/cicad30.pdf.
  • Winther, M., U. Kougsgaard, T. Ellermann, A. Massling, J. Klenø Nøjgaard, and M. Ketzel. 2015. Emissions of NOx, particle mass and particle numbers from aircraft main engines, APU’s and handling equipment at Copenhagen airport. Atmos. Environ. 100:218–29. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.10.045.
  • Wozniak, M. C., F. Solmon, and A. L. Steiner. 2018. Pollen rupture and its impact on precipitation in clean continental conditions. 45 1-7164: 45 1-7164. doi: 10.1029/2018GL077692.
  • Wright, T. P., J. D. Hader, G. R. McMeeking, and M. D. Peters. 2014. High relative humidity as a trigger for widespread release of ice nulei. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 48:i–v. doi:10.1080/02786826.2014.968244.
  • Xu, X., and C. P. Weisel. 2005. Human respiratory uptake of chloroform and haloketones during showering. J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 15:6–16. doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500374.
  • Xu, X., S. Ha, and R. Basnet. 2016. A review of epidemiological research on adverse neurological effects of exposure to ambient air pollution. Front. Public Health 4:157. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2016.0015.
  • Yu, F., G. Luo, T. Bates, B. Anderson, A. Clarke, V. Kapusin, R. Yantosca, Y. Wang, and S. Wu. 2010. Spatial distributions of particle number concentrations in the global troposphere: Simulations, observations, and implications for nucleation mechanisms. J. Geophys. Res.Atmos. 115 (17):1–14. doi:10.1029/2009JD013473.
  • Zhang, R., T. Duhl, M. T. Salam, J. M. House, R. C. Flagan, E. L. Avol, F. D. Gilliland, A. Guenther, S. H. Chung, B. Lamb, et al. 2014. Development of a regional-scale pollen emission and transport modeling framework for investigating the impact of climate change on allergic airway disease. Biogeosciences 11:461–1478. doi:10.5194/bg-11-1461-2014.
  • Zhu, L., D. J. Jacob, F. N. Keutsch, L. J. Mickley, R. Scheffe, M. Strum, A. G. González, K. Chance, K. Yang, B. Rappenglück, et al. 2017a. Formaldehyde (HCHO) as a hazardous air pollutant: Mapping surface air concentrations from satellite and inferring cancer risks in the United States. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51 (10):5650–57. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b01356.
  • Zhu, L., L. J. Mickley, D. J. Jacob, E. A. Marais, J. Sheng, L. Hu, G. G. Abad, and K. Chance. 2017b. Long-term (2005–2014) trends in formaldehyde (HCHO) columns across North America as seen by the OMI satellite instrument: Evidence of changing emissions of volatile organic compounds. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44:7079–86. doi:10.1002/2017GL073859.
  • Zimmerman, N., J. M. Wang, C. H. Jeong, J. S. Wallace, and G. J. Evans. 2016. Assessing the climate trade-offs of gasoline direct injection engines. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50 (15):8385–92. doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b01800.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.