Critical review on PFOA, kidney cancer, and testicular cancer

References

• 3M. 3M’s commitment to PFAS stewardship. Accessed March 1, 2021. https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/pfas-stewardship-us/pfas-history/
   Google Scholar
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2018. Toxicological profile for perfluoroalkyls. (Draft for public comment). Atlanta, GA, U.S.: Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
   Google Scholar
• American Cancer Society. 2020b.Key statistics for testicular cancer. January 8. Accessed January 18, 2021. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/testicular-cancer/about/key-statistics.html
   Google Scholar
• American Cancer Society (ACS). 2020a. Key statistics about kidney cancer. American Cancer Society, January 8. Accessed January 18, 2021. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/kidney-cancer/about/key-statistics.html
   Google Scholar
• Andrews, D. 2018. Report: Up to 110 million Americans could have PFAS-contaminated drinking water. Environmental Working Group, May 22. Accessed March 1, 2021. https://www.ewg.org/research/report-110-million-americans-could-have-pfas-contaminated-drinking-water
   Google Scholar
• Australia Expert Health Panel for PFAS. 2018. Australian government, department of health. Combined Report, May 7. https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/ohp-pfas-expert-panel.htm
   Google Scholar
• Avanasi, R., H. M. Shin, V. M. Vieira, and S. M. Bartell. 2016. Variability and epistemic uncertainty in water ingestion rates and pharmacokinetic parameters, and impact on the association between perfluorooctanoate and preeclampsia in the C8 health project population. Environ. Res. 146:299–307. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.01.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barry, V., A. Winquist, and K. Steenland. 2013. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) exposures and incident cancers among adults living near a chemical plant. Environ. Health Perspect. 121:1313–18. doi:10.1289/ehp.1306615.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartell, S. M. 2017. Online serum PFOA calculator for adults. Environ. Health Perspect. 125:104502. doi:10.1289/EHP2820.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartell, S. M. 2019. Understanding and mitigating the replication crisis, for environmental epidemiologists. Curr. Environ. Health Rep. 6:8–15. doi:10.1007/s40572-019-0225-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bartell, S. M., A. M. Calafat, C. Lyu, K. Kato, P. B. Ryan, and K. Steenland. 2010. Rate of decline in serum PFOA concentrations after granular activated carbon filtration at two public water systems in Ohio and West Virginia. Environ. Health Perspect. 118 (2):222–28. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901252.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• C8 Science Panel. 2012. C8 science panel probable link reports [website]. updated October 29. Accessed January 18, 2021. http://www.c8sciencepanel.org/prob_link.html
   Google Scholar
• Chandler, J., M. Cumpston, J. Thomas, J. P. T. Higgins, J. J. Deeks, M. J. Clarke, and I. Chapter. 2020. Introduction. In ed.. J. P. T. Higgins, J. Thomas, J. Chandler, M. Cumpston, T. Li, M. J. Page, and V. A. Welch, Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions version 6.1. Cochrane. The Cochrane Collaboration. Accessed September 2020. www.training.cochrane.org/handbook
   Google Scholar
• Chang, E. T., H. O. Adami, P. Boffetta, P. Cole, T. B. Starr, and J. S. Mandel. May 2014. A critical review of perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctanesulfonate exposure and cancer risk in humans. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 44(Suppl 1):1–81. doi: 10.3109/10408444.2014.905767.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Consonni, D., K. Straif, J. M. Symons, J. A. Tomenson, L. G. P. M. van Amelsvoort, A. Sleeuwenhoek, J. W. Cherrie, P. Bonetti, I. Colombo, D. G. Farrar, et al. 2013. Cancer risk among Tetrafluoroethylene synthesis and polymerization workers. Am. J. Epidemiol. 178(3):350–58. doi:10.1093/aje/kws588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Silva, A. O., J. M. Armitage, T. A. Bruton, C. Dassuncao, W. Heiger–Bernays, X. C. Hu, A. Kärrman, B. Kelly, C. Ng, A. Robuck, et al. 2021. PFAS exposure pathways for humans and wildlife: A synthesis of current knowledge and key gaps in understanding. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 40:631–57. doi:10.1002/etc.4935.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain. 2018. Scientific opinion on the risk to human health related to the presence of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid and perfluorooctanoic acid in food. Efsa J. 16(12):5194.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frisbee, S. J., A. P. Brooks Jr, A. Maher, P. Flensborg, S. Arnold, T. Fletcher, K. Steenland, A. Shankar, S. S. Knox, C. Pollard, et al. 2009. The C8 health project: Design, methods, and participants. Environ. Health Perspect. December 117(12):1873–82. doi: 10.1289/ehp.0800379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilliland, F. D., and J. S. Mandel. September 1993. Mortality among employees of a perfluorooctanoic acid production plant. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 35(9):950–54. doi: 10.1097/00043764-199309000-00020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomis, M. I., R. Vestergren, H. Nilsson, and I. Cousins. 2016. Contribution of direct and indirect exposure to human serum concentrations of perfluorooctanoic acid in an occupationally exposed group of ski waxers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50:7037–46. doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b01477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haug, L. S., S. Huber, G. Becher, and C. Thomsen. 2011. Characterisation of human exposure pathways to perfluorinated compounds — Comparing exposure estimates with biomarkers of exposure. Environ. Int. 37:687–93. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernán, M. A., S. Hernández-Díaz, M. M. Werler, and A. A. Mitchell. 2002. Causal knowledge as a prerequisite for confounding evaluation: An application to birth defects epidemiology. Am. J. Epidemiol. 155:176–84. doi:10.1093/aje/155.2.176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hertz-Picciotto, I. 1995. Epidemiology and quantitative risk assessment: A bridge from science to policy. Am. J. Public Health 85 (4):484–91. doi:10.2105/ajph.85.4.484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, J. P. T., and S. G. Thompson. 2002. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat. Med. 21 (11):1539–58. doi:10.1002/sim.1186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, A. B. 1965. The environment and disease: Association or causation? Proc. R. Soc. Med. 58:295–300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, X. C., D. Q. Andrews, A. B. Lindstrom, T. A. Bruton, L. A. Schaider, P. Grandjean, R. Lohmann, C. C. Carignan, A. Blum, S. A. Balan, et al. 2016. Detection of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in U.S. Drinking water linked to industrial sites, military fire training areas, and wastewater treatment plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 3:344–50. doi:10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Working Group. 2016. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Vol. 110. Lyon, France: IARC. Some Chemicals Used as Solvents and in Polymer Manufacture.
   Google Scholar
• Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). PFAS technical and regulatory guidance document and fact sheets PFAS-1. Washington, DC: ITRC PFAS Team. Accessed March 1, 2021. https://pfas-1.itrcweb.org
   Google Scholar
• Kim, S. B., S. M. Bartell, and D. L. Gillen. 2015. Estimation of a benchmark dose in the presence or absence of hormesis using posterior averaging. Risk Anal. 35 (3):396–408. doi:10.1111/risa.12294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotlarz, N., J. McCord, D. Collier, C. S. Lea, M. Strynar, A. B. Lindstrom, A. A. Wilkie, J. Y. Islam, K. Matney, P. Tarte, et al. 2020. Measurement of novel, drinking water-associated PFAS in blood from adults and children in Wilmington, North Carolina. Environ. Health Perspect. July 128(7):77005. doi: 10.1289/EHP6837.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard, R. C., K. H. Kreckmann, C. J. Sakr, and J. M. Symons. 2008. Retrospective cohort mortality study of workers in a polymer production plant including a reference population of regional workers. Ann. Epidemiol. 18 (1):15–22. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.06.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Y., Y. Xu, K. Scott, C. Lindh, K. Jakobsson, and T. Fletcher. 2019. Half-lives of PFOA, PFPeS, PFHxS, PFHpS and PFOS after end of exposure to contaminated drinking water. Environ. Epidemiol. 3:237. doi:10.1097/01.EE9.0000608476.06577.16.
   Google Scholar
• Lorber, M., and P. P. Egeghy. 2011. Simple intake and pharmacokinetic modeling to characterize exposure of Americans to perfluoroctanoic acid, PFOA. Environ. Sci. Technol. October 1. 4519: 8006–14.doi: 10.1021/es103718h
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, S., and S. M. Bartell 2019. Serum PFAS calculator for adults, version 1.1. Accessed May 25, 2020. www.ics.uci.edu/~sbartell/pfascalc.html
   Google Scholar
• Mastrantonio, M., E. Bai, R. Uccelli, V. Cordiano, A. Screpanti, and P. Crosignani. 2018. Drinking water contamination from perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): An ecological mortality study in the Veneto region, Italy. Eur. J. Public Health 28 (1):180–85. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckx066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michigan PFAS Action Response Team. 2021. PFAS response/investigations: Rockford Tannery, Rockford, Kent County. Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy. February 22. Lansing, Michigan. Accessed March 1, 2021. https://www.michigan.gov/pfasresponse/0,9038,7-65-86511_82704-488796–,00.html.
   Google Scholar
• Munafò, M. R., and G. Davey Smith. 2018. Robust research needs many lines of evidence. Nature January 25. 5537689: 399–401.doi: 10.1038/d41586-018-01023-3
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program (NTP). Technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of perfluorooctanoic acid (CASRN 335-67-1) administered in feed to Sprague Dawley Rats. Technical Report 598, North Carolina, USA: National Toxicology Program, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park. May 2020.
   Google Scholar
• New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services. 2018. Cancer Incidence Report: Merrimack, NH. Division of Public Health Services, January. Accessed April 21, 2021. https://www.dhhs.nh.gov/dphs/pfcs/documents/merrimack-cancer-012018.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Norman, J. 1992. One-compartment kinetics. Br. J. Anaesth. 69:387–96. doi:10.1093/bja/69.4.387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen, G. W., J. M. Burris, D. J. Ehresman, J. W. Froehlich, A. M. Seacat, J. L. Butenhoff, L. R. Zobel. 2007. Half-life of serum elimination of perfluorooctanesulfonate, perfluorohexanesulfonate, and perfluorooctanoate in retired fluorochemical production workers. Environ. Health Perspect. 115(9):1298–305. doi:10.1289/ehp.10009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Post, G. B., J. A. Gleason, K. R. Cooper, and L. S. Birnbaum. 2017. Key scientific issues in developing drinking water guidelines for perfluoroalkyl acids: Contaminants of emerging concern. PLoS Biol. December 20. 1512: e2002855. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2002855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raleigh, K. K., B. H. Alexander, G. W. Olsen, G. Ramachandran, S. Z. Morey, T. R. Church, P. W. Logan, L. L. F. Scott, E. M. Allen. 2014. Mortality and cancer incidence in ammonium perfluorooctanoate production workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 71:500–06. doi:10.1136/oemed-2014-102109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman, K. J., and S. Greenland. 2005. July 1. Causation and causal inference in epidemiology. Am. J. Public Health 95S1: S144–S150. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.059204
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Russell, M. H., R. L. Waterland, and F. Wong. 2015. Calculation of chemical elimination half-life from blood with an ongoing exposure source: The example of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Chemosphere 129:210–16. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.07.061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samet, J. M., S. Bartell, L. Bero, A. Bostrom, K. Dickersin, D. C. Dorman, D. L. Eaton. 2014. Review of EPA’s integrated risk information system (IRIS) process. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shearer, J. J., C. L. Callahan, A. M. Calafat, W. Y. Huang, R. R. Jones, V. S. Sabbisetti, N. D. Freedman, J. N. Sampson, D. T. Silverman, M. P. Purdue. et al. Serum concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and risk of renal cell carcinoma. JNCI 2020. djaa143, doi:10.1093/jnci/djaa143. corrected proof.
   Google Scholar
• Shin, H. M., V. M. Vieira, P. B. Ryan, K. Steenland, and S. M. Bartell. 2011b. Retrospective exposure estimation and predicted versus observed serum perfluorooctanoic acid concentrations for participants in the C8 health project. Environ. Health Perspect. 119 (12):1760–65. doi:10.1289/ehp.1103729.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin, H. M., V. M. Vieira, P. B. Ryan, R. Detwiler, B. Sanders, K. Steenland, and S. M. Bartell. 2011a. Environmental fate and transport modeling for perfluorooctanoic acid emitted from the Washington works facility in West Virginia. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (4):1435–42. doi:10.1021/es102769t.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenland, K., and A. Winquist. 2021. PFAS and cancer, a scoping review of the epidemiologic evidence. Environ. Res. 194:110690. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenland, K., and S. Woskie. 2012. Cohort mortality study of workers exposed to perfluorooctanoic acid. Am. J. Epidemiol. November 15. 17610: 909–17.doi: 10.1093/aje/kws171
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steenland, K., T. Fletcher, C. R. Stein, S. M. Bartell, L. Darrow, M. J. Lopez-Espinosa, P. B. Ryan, and D. A. Savitz. 2020. Commentary: Evolution of evidence on PFOA and health following the assessments of the C8 science panel. Environ. Int. 145:106125. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.106125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sterne, J. A. C., M. A. Hernán, A. McAleenan, B. C. Reeves, and J. P. T. Higgins. 2020. Chapter 25: Assessing risk of bias in a non-randomized study. ed.. J. P. T. Higgins, J. Thomas, J. Chandler, M. Cumpston, T. Li, M. J. Page, and V. A. Welch, Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions version 6.1. Cochrane. The Cochrane Collaboration. Accessed September 2020. www.training.cochrane.org/handbook
   Google Scholar
• Strynar, M., S. Dagnino, R. McMahen, S. Liang, A. Lindstrom, E. Andersen, L. McMillan, M. Thurman, I. Ferrer, and C. Ball. 2015. Identification of novel perfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic acids (PFECAs) and sulfonic acids (PFESAs) in natural waters using accurate mass time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS). Environ. Sci. Technol. 49:11622–30. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b01215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, Q., G. Zong, D. Valvi, F. Nielsen, B. Coull, and P. Grandjean. 2018. Plasma concentrations of perfluoroalkyl substances and risk of type 2 diabetes: A prospective investigation among U.S. women. Environ. Health Perspect. 126 (3):037001. doi:10.1289/EHP2619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunderland, E. M., X. C. Hu, C. Dassuncao, A. K. Tokranov, C. C. Wagner, and J. G. Allen. 2019. A review of the pathways of human exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and present understanding of health effects. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. March 29(2):131–47. doi: 10.1038/s41370-018-0094-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szklo, M., and F. J. Nieto. 2019. Epidemiology: Beyond the basics. 4th ed. Boston, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
   Google Scholar
• Temkin, A. M., B. A. Hocevar, D. Q. Andrews, O. V. Naidenko, and L. M. Kamendulis. 2020. Application of the key characteristics of carcinogens to per and polyfluoroalkyl substances. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health March 4. 175: 1668.doi: 10.3390/ijerph17051668
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 30 May 2006. Report of the perfluorooctanoic acid review panel. Washington, DC: Science Advisory Board.
   Google Scholar
• US Environmental Protection Agency. 2016. Health effects support document for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Office of Water, May. EPA 822-R-16-003.
   Google Scholar
• van Reekum, R., D. L. Streiner, and D. K. Conn. 2001. Applying Bradford Hill’s criteria for causation to neuropsychiatry. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 13 (3):318–25. doi:10.1176/jnp.13.3.318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Wijngaarden, E., and I. Hertz-Picciotto. 2004. A simple approach to performing quantitative cancer risk assessment using published results from occupational epidemiology studies. Sci. Total Environ. 332:81–87. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.04.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vieira, V. M., K. Hoffman, H. M. Shin, J. M. Weinberg, T. F. Webster, and T. Fletcher. 2013. Perfluorooctanoic acid exposure and cancer outcomes in a contaminated community: A geographic analysis. Environ. Health Perspect. 121:318–23. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisskopf, M. G., and T. F. Webster. 2017. Trade-offs of personal versus more proxy exposure measures in environmental epidemiology. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.) 28 (5):635–43. doi:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000686.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., S. Beesoon, L. Zhu, and J. W. Martin. 2013. Biomonitoring of perfluoroalkyl acids in human urine and estimates of biological half-life. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47 (18):10619–27. doi:10.1021/es401905e.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar