How the Paradoxical Treatment of Asian Americans as Model Minorities and Perpetual Foreigners Shape Their Burnout Experiences in Local Government

References

• Armenta, B. E., Lee, R. M., Pituc, S. T., Jung, K.-R., Park, I. J. K., Soto, J. A., Kim, S. Y., & Schwartz, S. J. (2013). Where are you from? A validation of the Foreigner Objectification Scale and the psychological correlates of foreigner objectification among Asian Americans and Latinos. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(2), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031547
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkin, A. L., Yoo, H. C., Jager, J., & Yeh, C. J. (2018). Internalization of the model minority myth, school racial composition, and psychological distress among Asian American adolescents. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 9(2), 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000096
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balliet, D., & Ferris, D. L. (2013). Ostracism and prosocial behavior: A social dilemma perspective. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 120(2), 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.04.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barboza-Wilkes, C., Le, T. V., & Resh, W. (2022). Deconstructing burnout at the intersections of race, gender, and generation in local government. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muac018
   Google Scholar
• Bebko, G. M., Cheon, B. K., Ochsner, K. N., & Chiao, J. Y. (2019). Cultural differences in perceptual strategies underlying emotion regulation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 50(9), 1014–1026. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022119876102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamin, E. (2021). Trump, the coronavirus pandemic, Asian American Xenophobia, and humanistic psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 61(2), 244–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167820979650
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brotheridge, C. M., & Lee, R. T. (2002). Testing a conservation of resources model of the dynamics of emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(1), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.1.57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budiman, A., & Ruiz, N. G. (2021). Asian Americans are the fastest-growing racial or ethnic group in the U.S. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/09/asian-americans-are-the-fastest-growing-racial-or-ethnic-group-in-the-u-s/
   Google Scholar
• Butler, E., Lee, T., & Gross, J. (2007). Emotion regulation and culture: Are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific? Emotion, 7(1), 30–48. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, R. (2000). Disoriented. New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, A. (2021, May 29). Amid growing anti-Asian Racism, a call for more research into its health effects. National Public Radio (NPR). https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2021/05/29/1001373994/amid-growing-anti-asian-racism-a-call-for-more-research-into-its-health-effects
   Google Scholar
• Cheng, H.-L. (2020). Xenophobia and racism against Asian Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic: Mental health implications. Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Scholarship, 3, 5.
   Google Scholar
• Choi, S., & Rainey, H. G. (2014). Organizational fairness and diversity management in public organizations: Does fairness matter in managing diversity? Review of Public Personnel Administration, 34(4), 307–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X13486489
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989, 139–168.
   Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). Self-determination theory in work organizations: The state of a science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4(1), 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113108
   Google Scholar
• Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical race theory: An introduction (3rd ed.). New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ding, F., Lu, J., & Riccucci, N. M. (2021). How bureaucratic representation affects public organizational performance: A meta-analysis. Public Administration Review, 81(6), 1003–1018. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13361
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferris, D. L., Brown, D. J., Berry, J. W., & Lian, H. (2008). The development and validation of the Workplace Ostracism Scale. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1348–1366. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012743
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glomb, T. M., & Tews, M. J. (2004). Emotional labor: A conceptualization and scale development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00038-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gover, A. R., Harper, S. B., & Langton, L. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 647–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grandey, A., Diefendorff, J., & Rupp, D. E. (2013). Emotional labor in the 21st century: Diverse perspectives on emotion regulation at work. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Grant, A. M. (2008). Does intrinsic motivation fuel the prosocial fire? Motivational synergy in predicting persistence, performance, and productivity. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, A. M., & Mayer, D. M. (2009). Good soldiers and good actors: Prosocial and impression management motives as interactive predictors of affiliative citizenship behaviors. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(4), 900–912. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013770
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J., & John, O. E. (1998). Mapping the domain of expressivity: Multimethod evidence for a hierarchical model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 170–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Headley, A. M., Wright, J. E. II, & Meier, K. J. (2021). Bureaucracy, democracy, and race: The limits of symbolic representation. Public Administration Review, 81(6), 1033–1043. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13358
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, C. P., Chong, A., Narayan, A., Cooke, E. A., Deng, F., Agarwal, V., DeBenedectis, C. M., Deitte, L. A., Jay, A. K., & Kagetsu, N. J. (2020). Mitigating Asian American bias and xenophobia in response to the coronavirus pandemic: How you can be an upstander. Journal of the American College of Radiology, 17(12), 1692–1694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacr.2020.09.030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J.-P., & Westman, M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5(1), 103–128. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640
   Google Scholar
• Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling, updated with a new preface. University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hülsheger, U. R., & Schewe, A. F. (2011). On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(3), 361–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022876
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humphrey, N. M. (2022). Racialized emotional labor: An unseen burden in the public sector. Administration & Society, 54(4), 741–758. https://doi.org/10.1177/00953997211037583
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huynh, Q.-L., Devos, T., & Smalarz, L. (2011). Perpetual foreigner in one's own land: Potential implications for identity and psychological adjustment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30(2), 133–162. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2011.30.2.133
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang, W.-C. (2021). Demystifying and addressing internalized racism and oppression among Asian Americans. The American Psychologist, 76(4), 596–610. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000798
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, C. J. (1999). The racial triangulation of Asian Americans. Politics & Society, 27(1), 105–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329299027001005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, J., & Linden, W. (1993). The smile of Asia: Acculturation effects on symptom reporting. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 25(2), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0078780
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, A. Y., Aaker, J. L., & Gardner, W. L. (2000). The pleasures and pains of distinct seif-construals: The role of interdependence in regulatory focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(6), 1122–1134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, S., Juon, H.-S., Martinez, G., Hsu, C. E., Robinson, E. S., Bawa, J., & Ma, G. X. (2009). Model minority at risk: Expressed needs of mental health by Asian American young adults. Journal of Community Health, 34(2), 144–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-008-9137-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liem, R., Lim, B. A., & Liem, J. H. (2000). Acculturation and emotion among Asian Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 6(1), 13–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.6.1.13
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lu, A., & Wong, Y. J. (2013). Stressful experiences of masculinity among U.S.-born and immigrant Asian American men. Gender & Society, 27(3), 345–371. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213479446
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, X., & Guy, M. E. (2019). Emotional labor, performance goal orientation, and burnout from the perspective of conservation of resources: A United States/China comparison. Public Performance & Management Review, 42(3), 685–706. https://doi.org/10.1080/15309576.2018.1507916
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, X., Lee, H. J., Yang, S.-B., & Song, M. H. (2021). The dynamic role of emotional intelligence on the relationship between emotional labor and job satisfaction: A comparison study of public service in China and South Korea. Public Personnel Management, 50(3), 356–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026020946476
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1984). Burnout in organizational settings. Applied Social Psychology Annual, 5, 133–153.
   Google Scholar
• Maslach, C., Leiter, M. P., Schaufeli, W. B. (2008). Measuring burnout. In The Oxford handbook of organizational well being. http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199211913.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199211913-e-005
   Google Scholar
• Mastracci, S., & Adams, I. (2019). Is emotional labor easier in collectivist or individualist cultures? An East–West comparison. Public Personnel Management, 48(3), 325–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091026018814569
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsumoto, D. (1993). Ethnic differences in affect intensity, emotion judgments, display rule attitudes, and self-reported emotional expression in an American sample. Motivation and Emotion, 17(2), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00995188
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina, P. S., & Azevedo, L. (2021). Latinx COVID-19 outcomes: Expanding the role of representative bureaucracy. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 43(4), 447–461. https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2021.1910411
   Google Scholar
• Morelen, D., & Thomassin, K. (2013). Emotion socialization and ethnicity: An examination of practices and outcomes in African American, Asian American, and Latin American families. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 86(2), 168–178.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mukkamala, S., & Suyemoto, K. L. (2018). Racialized sexism/sexualized racism: A multimethod study of intersectional experiences of discrimination for Asian American women. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 9(1), 32–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nishii, L. H. (2013). The benefits of climate for inclusion for gender-diverse groups. The Academy of Management Journal, 56(6), 1754–1774. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.0823
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okazaki, S. (1997). Sources of ethnic differences between Asian American and White American college students on measures of depression and social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okazaki, S. (2000). Asian American and White American differences on affective distress symptoms: Do symptom reports differ across reporting methods? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(5), 603–625. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022100031005004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, I. J. K., Sulaiman, C., Kim, S. Y., Schwartz, S. J., Ham, L. S., & Zamboanga, B. L. (2011). Self-construals and social anxiety among Asian American college students: Testing emotion suppression as a mediator. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patil, S. V., & Lebel, R. D. (2019). “I want to serve but the public does not understand:” Prosocial motivation, image discrepancies, and proactivity in public safety. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 154, 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.07.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phoenix, D. L., & Arora, M. (2018). From emotion to action among Asian Americans: Assessing the roles of threat and identity in the age of Trump. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 6(3), 357–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1494011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portillo, S., Humphrey, N., & Bearfield, D. A. (2022). Representative bureaucracy theory and the implicit embrace of whiteness and masculinity. Public Administration Review, 82(3), 594–597. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13477
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray, V., Herd, P., & Moynihan, D. (2022). Racialized burdens: Applying racialized organization theory to the administrative state. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muac001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero-Canyas, R., Downey, G., Reddy, K. S., Rodriguez, S., Cavanaugh, T. J., & Pelayo, R. (2010). Paying to belong: When does rejection trigger ingratiation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(5), 802–823. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starke, A. M., Heckler, N., & Mackey, J. (2018). Administrative racism: Public administration education and race. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 24(4), 469–489. https://doi.org/10.1080/15236803.2018.1426428
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steel, J. L. (1991). Interpersonal correlates of trust and self-disclosure. Psychological Reports, 68(3_suppl), 1319–1320. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1991.68.3c.1319
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens, M. (2020, March 29). How Asian-American leaders are grappling with xenophobia amid coronavirus. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/29/us/politics/coronavirus-asian-americans.html
   Google Scholar
• Sue, S., Cheng, J. K. Y., Saad, C. S., & Chu, J. P. (2012). Asian American mental health: A call to action. The American Psychologist, 67(7), 532–544. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028900
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, M., & Lau, A. S. (2018). Exploring cultural differences in expressive suppression and emotion recognition. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(4), 664–672. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118763749
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, W., & Critchfield, A. J. (2021). Asian Americans’ perceived work-related stress: Impacts on job satisfaction and retention. Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 22(1), 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/17459435.2020.1844789
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, M., Carlson, D., Kacmar, K., & Vogel, R. (2020). The cost of being ignored: Emotional exhaustion in the work and family domains. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(2), 186–195. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai, W., & Lau, A. S. (2013). Cultural differences in emotion regulation during self-reflection on negative personal experiences. Cognition & Emotion, 27(3), 416–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.715080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 425–452. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A. H. (2010). Are some emotions marked “Whites only”? Racialized feeling rules in professional workplaces. Social Problems, 57(2), 251–268. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2010.57.2.251
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, Y. J., & McCullough, K. M. (2021). The intersectional prototypicality model: Understanding the discriminatory experiences of Asian American women and men. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 12(2), 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000208
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, Y. J., Owen, J., Tran, K. K., Collins, D. L., & Higgins, C. E. (2012). Asian American male college students’ perceptions of people’s stereotypes about Asian American men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 13(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022800
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woo, B., & Jun, J. (2022). COVID-19 racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among Asians Americans: Does communication about the incident matter? Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 24(1), 78–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-021-01167-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, L.-Z., Yim, F. H., Kwan, H. K., & Zhang, X. (2012). Coping with workplace ostracism: The roles of ingratiation and political skill in employee psychological distress. Journal of Management Studies, 49(1), 178–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2011.01017.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yi, V., & Museus, S. D. (2015). Model minority myth. In The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of race, ethnicity, and nationalism (pp. 1–2). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118663202.wberen528
   Google Scholar
• Yoo, H. C., Miller, M. J., & Yip, P. (2015). Validation of the internalization of the Model Minority Myth Measure (IM-4) and its link to academic performance and psychological adjustment among Asian American adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037648
   Google Scholar