Effects of dehumanization and disgust-eliciting language on attitudes toward immigration: a sentiment analysis of Twitter data

References

• Aarøe, L., Petersen, M. B., & Arceneaux, K. (2017). The behavioral immune system shapes political intuitions: Why and how individual differences in disgust sensitivity underlie opposition to immigration. American Political Science Review, 111(2), 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055416000770
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acevedo, N. (2021, January 22). Biden seeks to replace ‘alien’ with less ‘dehumanizing term’ in immigration laws. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino%20/biden-seeks-%20less-dehumanizing-term-immigration-laws-n1255350
   Google Scholar
• Arias, M., Arratia, A., & Xuriguera, R. (2014). Forecasting with twitter data. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology, 5(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1145/2542182.2542190
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auxier, B., Anderson, M. (2021, April 7). Social media use in 2021. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/04/07/social-media-use-in-2021/
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A., Underwood, B., & Fromson, M. E. (1975). Disinhibition of aggression through diffusion of responsibility and dehumanization of victims. Journal of Research in Personality, 9(4), 253–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(75)90001-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barberá, P., Jost, J. T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J. A., & Bonneau, R. (2015). Tweeting from left to right: Is online political communication more than an echo chamber? Psychological Science, 26(10), 1531–1542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615594620
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brader, T., Valentino, N. A., & Suhay, E. (2008). What triggers public opposition to immigration? Anxiety, group cues, and immigration threat. American Journal of Political Science, 52(4), 959–978. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00353.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckels, E. E., & Trapnell, P. D. (2013). Disgust facilitates outgroup dehumanization. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 16(6), 771–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430212471738
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao, A., Lindo, J. M., & Zhong, J. (2023). Can social media rhetoric incite hate incidents? Evidence from Trump’s “Chinese Virus” tweets. Journal of Urban Economics, 137, 103590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2023.103590
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadwick, A. (2013). The hybrid media system: Politics and power. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chalk, F., & Jonassohn, K. (1990). The history and sociology of genocide: Analyses and case studies. Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chandler, C. R., & Tsai, Y. M. (2001). Social factors influencing immigration attitudes: an analysis of data from the General Social Survey. The Social Science Journal, 38(2), 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0362-3319(01)00106-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chavez, L. R. (2001). Covering immigration: Popular images and the politics of a nation. University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cisneros, J. D. (2008). Contaminated communities: The metaphor of “immigrant as pollutant” in media representations of immigration. Rhetoric and Public Affairs, 11, 569–601. https://doi.org/10.1353/rap.0.0068
   Google Scholar
• Citron, D. K., & Norton, H. (2011). Intermediaries and hate speech: Fostering digital citizenship for our information age. Boston University Law Review, 91, 1435–1484.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colleoni, E., Rozza, A., & Arvidsson, A. (2014). Echo chamber or public sphere? Predicting political affiliation and measuring political homophily in Twitter using big data. Journal of Communication, 64(2), 317–332. https://doi.org/10/1111/jcom.12084
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costello, K., & Hodson, G. (2010). Exploring the roots of dehumanization: The role of animal—human similarity in promoting immigrant humanization. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 13(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430209347725
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Culotta, A. (2010). Towards detecting influenza epidemics by analyzing twitter messages. Paper Presented at the Proceedings of the First Workshop on Social Media Analytics (SOMA'10). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/1964858.1964874
   Google Scholar
• Dalsklev, M., & Rønningsdalen-Kunst, J. (2015). The effect of disgust-eliciting media portrayals on outgroup dehumanization and support of deportation in a Norwegian sample. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 47, 28–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.03.028
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Saint Laurent, C., Glaveanu, V., & Chaudet, C. (2020). Malevolent creativity and social media: Creating anti-immigration communities on Twitter. Creativity Research Journal, 32(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.10/10400419.2020.1712164
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Vicario, M., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., Stanley, H. E., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2017). Modeling confirmation bias and polarization. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 40391. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhuman Giron, S. A., & Vargas, N. (2020). Threatening places or diverse spaces: Divergent constructions of Florida Puerto Ricans across Twitter and newspaper articles. Sociological Inquiry, 90(1), 101–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12295
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dick, H. P. (2011). Making immigrants illegal in small‐town USA. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 21(s1), E35–E55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1395.2011.01096.x
   Google Scholar
• Dinesh, S., Odabaş, M. (2023, July 26). 8 facts about Americans and Twitter as it rebrands to X. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/07/26/8-facts-about-americans-and-twitter-as-it-rebrands-to-x/
   Google Scholar
• Esses, V. M. (2021). Prejudice and discrimination toward immigrants. Annual Review of Psychology, 72(1), 503–531. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-080520-102803
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Esses, V. M., Medianu, S., & Lawson, A. S. (2013). Uncertainty, threat, and the role of the media in promoting the dehumanization of immigrants and refugees. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 518–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faulkner, J., Schaller, M., Park, J. H., & Duncan, L. A. (2004). Evolved disease-avoidance mechanisms and contemporary xenophobic attitudes. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 7(4), 333–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430204046142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flores, R. D. (2017). Do anti-immigrant laws shape public sentiment? A study of Arizona’s SB 1070 using Twitter data. American Journal of Sociology, 123(2), 333–384. https://doi.org/10.1086/692983
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flores, R. D., & Azar, A. (2023). Who are the “immigrants”?: How Whites’ diverse perceptions of immigrants shape their attitudes. Social Forces, 101(4), 2117–2146. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soac113
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidt, J., Rozin, P., Mccauley, C., & Imada, S. (1997). Body, psyche, and culture: The relationship between disgust and morality. Psychology and Developing Societies, 9(1), 107–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/097133369700900105
   Google Scholar
• Hankes, K., & Amend, A. (2018, February 5). The alt-right is killing people. Southern Poverty Law Center. https://www.splcenter.org/20180205/alt-right-killing-people
   Google Scholar
• Harris, L. T., & Fiske, S. T. (2006). Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: Neuroimaging responses to extreme out-groups. Psychological Science, 17(10), 847–853. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01793.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasan, A., Moin, S., Karim, A., & Shamshirband, S. (2018). Machine learning-based sentiment analysis for Twitter accounts. Mathematical and Computational Applications, 23(1), 11–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/mca23010011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haslam, N. (2006). Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 10(3), 252–264. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1003_4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herz, R. S. (2011). PROP taste sensitivity is related to visceral but not moral disgust. Chemosensory Perception, 4(3), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12078-011-9089-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodson, G., & Costello, K. (2007). Interpersonal disgust, ideological affiliations, and dehumanization as predictors of intergroup attitudes. Psychological Science, 18(8), 691–698. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01962.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodson, G., Kteily, N., & Hoffarth, M. (2014). Of filthy pigs and subhuman mongrels: Dehumanization, disgust, and intergroup prejudice. Testing, Psychometrics, and Methodology in Applied Psychology, 3, 267–284. https://doi.org/10.4473/TPM21.3.3
   Google Scholar
• Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. Journal of Peace Research, 27(3), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343390027003005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwood, S., Perrin, A., & Duggan, M. (2016). Social media update 2016. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2016/11/11/social-media-update-2016/
   Google Scholar
• Kelman, H. G. (1973). Violence without moral restraint: Reflections on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers. Journal of Social Issues, 29(4), 25–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1973.tb00102.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendi, I. X. (2016). Stamped from the beginning: The definitive history of racist ideas in America. Nation Books.
   Google Scholar
• Kinefuchi, E., & Cruz, G. (2015). The Mexicans in the news: Representation of Mexican immigrants in the internet news media. Howard Journal of Communications, 26(4), 333–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2015.1049759
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein, A. (2019). From Twitter to Charlottesville: Analyzing the fighting words between the Alt-Right and Antifa. International Journal of Communication, 13, 297–318.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klocker, N., & Dunn, K. M. (2003). Who’s driving the asylum debate? Newspaper and government representations of asylum seekers. Media International Australia, 109(1), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X0310900109
   Google Scholar
• Lemieux, F., & Regens, J. (2012). Assessing terrorist risks: Developing an algorithm-based model for law enforcement. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 4(1), 37–65.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, P. G., Provine, D. M., Varsanyi, M. W., & Decker, S. H. (2013). Why do (some) city police departments enforce federal immigration law? Political, demographic, and organizational influences on local choices. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 23(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mus045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyens, J., Paladino, P. M., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez-Perez, A., & Gaunt, R. (2000). The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(2), 186–197. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_06
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markel, H., & Stern, A. M. (2002). The foreignness of germs: The persistent association of Immigrants and disease in American society. The Milbank Quarterly, 80(4), 757–788, v. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.00030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall, S. R., & Shapiro, J. R. (2018). When “scurry” vs. “hurry” makes the difference: Vermin metaphors, disgust, and anti-immigrant attitudes. Journal of Social Issues, 74(4), 774–789. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12298
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohammed, T. A. E. (2016). Review of sentiment analysis for classification Arabic tweets. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, 6(3), 47–53. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2951530
   Google Scholar
• Moore, S., & McFerran, B. (2011). Linguistic mimicry in online word of mouth. In R. Ahluwalia, T. L. Chartrand, & R. K. Ratner (Eds.), NA - advances in consumer research. (Vol. 39, pp. 18–19). Association for Consumer Research.
   Google Scholar
• Müller, K., & Schwarz, C. (2023). From hashtag to hate crime: Twitter and antiminority sentiment. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 15(3), 270–312. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20210211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murrar, S., & Brauer, M. (2019). Overcoming resistance to change: Using narratives to create more positive intergroup attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(2), 164–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418818552
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musolff, A. (2015). Dehumanizing metaphors in UK immigrant debates in press and online media. Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict, 3(1), 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.3.1.02mus
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarrete, C. D., & Fessler, D. M. T. (2006). Disease avoidance and ethnocentrism: The effects of disease vulnerability and disgust sensitivity on intergroup attitudes. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27(4), 270–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niederhoffer, K. G., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2002). Linguistic style matching in social interaction. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 21(4), 337–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/026192702237953
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien, G. (2003). Indigestible food, conquering hordes, and waste materials: Metaphors of Immigrants and the early immigration restriction debate in the United States. Metaphor and Symbol, 18(1), 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327868MS1801_3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Connor, B., Balasubbramanyan, R., Routledge, B., & Smith, N. (2010). From tweets to polls: Linking text sentiment to public opinion time series. In W. Cohen & S. Gosling (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fourth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media (pp. 122–129). AAAI Press. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v4i1.14031
   Google Scholar
• Opotow, S. (1990). Moral exclusion and injustice: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb00268.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedregosa, F., Varoquaux, G., Gramfort, A., Michel, V., Thirion, B., Grisel, O., Blondel, M., Prettenhofer, P., Weiss, R., Dubourg, V., & Vanderplas, J. (2011). Scikit-learn: Machine learning in Python. The Journal of Machine Learning Research, 12, 2825–2830.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez Miles, A. (2017). The social expulsion of the migrant: Aesthetic and tactical interventions. Journal of Social Theory in Art Education, 38(1), 5–15.
   Google Scholar
• Rafaeli, S., & Sudweeks, F. (2006). Networked interactivity. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 2(4), 0–0. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00201.x
   Google Scholar
• Richardson, J. (2007). Analyzing newspapers: An approach from critical discourse analysis. Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Rozin, P., Haidt, J., & McCauley, C. R. (2008). Disgust. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 757–776). The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rozin, P., Markwith, M., & McCauley, C. (1994). Sensitivity to indirect contacts with other persons: AIDS aversion as a composite of aversion to strangers, infection, moral taint, and misfortune. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103(3), 495–504. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.103.3.495
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozin, P., Markwith, M., & Stoess, C. (1997). Moralization and becoming a vegetarian: The transformation of preferences into values and the recruitment of disgust. Psychological Science, 8(2), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00685.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt, R. (2015). Systematic metaphor analysis as a method of qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 10, 358–394. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2005.1854
   Google Scholar
• Sears, D. O., & Freedman, J. L. (1967). Selective exposure to information: A critical review. Public Opinion Quarterly, 31(2), 194–213. https://doi.org/10.1086/267513
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shear, M. D., & Davis, J. H. (2019, October 2). Shoot migrants’ legs, build alligator moat: Behind Trump’s ideas for border. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/01/us/politics/trump-border-wars.html
   Google Scholar
• Shearer, E., & Matsa, K. E. (2018). News across social media platforms 2018. Pew Research Center. https://www.journalism.org/2018/09/10/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2018/
   Google Scholar
• Siapera, E., Boudourides, M., Lenis, S., & Suiter, J. (2018). Refugees and network publics on Twitter: Networked framing, affect, and capture. Social Media + Society, 4(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/205630511876443
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel, R. S., & Osoba, B. J. (2009). Youth gangs as pseudo-governments: Implications for violent crime. Southern Economic Journal, 75(4), 996–1018. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2325-8012.2009.tb00944.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanton, G. H. (2016). 10 Stages of genocide. http://genocidewatch.net/genocide-2/8-stages-of-genocide/
   Google Scholar
• Staub, E. (1999). The origins and prevention of genocide, mass killing, and other collective violence. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 5(4), 303–336. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327949pac0504_2
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics: International edition. Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Trump, D. J. (2019, January 25). Remarks by President Trump on the government shutdown. https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-government-shutdown
   Google Scholar
• Utych, S. M. (2018). How dehumanization influences attitudes toward immigrants. Political Research Quarterly, 71(2), 440–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912917744897
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, X., Brown, D. E., & Gerber, M. S. (2012). Spatio-temporal modeling of criminal incidents using geographic, demographic and twitter-derived information. In 2012 I.E. international Conference on Intelligence and Security Informatics, US. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=6284088.
   Google Scholar
• Weber, J. B., & Smith, C. S. (1892). Our national dumping-ground: A study of immigration. The North American Review, 154(425), 424–438.
   Google Scholar