The effect of unusualness on the functional field of view in unsafe scenesFootnote^*

* This study is part of the first author’s doctoral thesis and was presented at the 31st International Congress of Psychology, Kanagawa, Japan, in July 2016.

References

• Ball, K., Owsley, C., Sloane, M. E., Roenker, D. L., & Bruni, J. R. (1993). Visual attention problems as a predictor of vehicle crashes in older drivers. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 34, 3110–3123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biggs, A. T., Brockmole, J. R., & Witt, J. K. (2013). Armed and attentive: Holding a weapon can bias attentional priorities in scene viewing. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 75, 1715–1724. doi: 10.3758/s13414-013-0538-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brainard, D. H. (1997). The psychophysics toolbox. Spatial Vision, 10, 433–436. doi: 10.1163/156856897X00357
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christianson, S-Å, Loftus, E. F., Hoffman, H., & Loftus, G. R. (1991). Eye fixations and memory for emotional events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 693–701. doi: 10.1037//0278-7393.17.4.693
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Codispoti, M., De Cesarei, A., Biondi, S., & Ferrari, V. (2016). The fate of unattended stimuli and emotional habituation: Behavioral interference and cortical changes. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 16, 1063–1073. doi: 10.3758/s13415-016-0453-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.112.1.155 doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dijksterhuis, A., & Smith, P. K. (2002). Affective habituation: Subliminal exposure to extreme stimuli decreases their extremity. Emotion, 2, 203–214. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.2.3.203
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fawcett, J. M., Russell, E. J., Peace, K. A., & Christie, J. (2013). Of guns and geese: A meta-analytic review of the ‘weapon focus’ literature. Psychology, Crime & Law, 19, 35–66. doi: 10.1080/1068316X.2011.599325
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flowe, H. D., Hope, L., & Hillstrom, A. P. (2013). Oculomotor examination of the weapon focus effect: Does a gun automatically engage visual attention? PLoS One, 8, e81011. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, E., Russo, R., & Dutton, K. (2002). Attentional bias for threat: Evidence for delayed disengagement from emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 355–379. doi:10.1080/02699930143000527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 423, 534–537. doi:10.1038/nature01647
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harada, Y., Hakoda, Y., Kuroki, D., & Mitsudo, H. (2015). The presence of a weapon shrinks the functional field of view. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29, 592–599. doi: 10.1002/acp.3143
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, J. M., Weeks, P. A., Jr., & Hollingworth, A. (1999). The effects of semantic consistency on eye movements during complex scene viewing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25, 210–228. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.25.1.210
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodsoll, S., Viding, E., & Lavie, N. (2011). Attentional capture by irrelevant emotional distractor faces. Emotion, 11, 346–353. doi: 10.1037/a0022771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hope, L., & Wright, D. (2007). Beyond unusual? Examining the role of attention in the weapon focus effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 951–961. doi: 10.1002/acp.1307
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleiner, M., Brainard, D., & Pelli, D. (2007). What’s new in psychtoolbox-3? Perception, 36, ECVP Abstract Supplement.
   Google Scholar
• LaPointe, M. R. P., Lupianez, J., & Milliken, B. (2013). Context congruency effects in change detection: Opposing effects on detection and identification. Visual Cognition, 21, 99–122. doi: 10.1080/13506285.2013.787133
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeDoux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Lipp, O. V., & Derakshan, N. (2005). Attentional bias to pictures of fear-relevant animals in a dot probe task. Emotion, 5, 365–369. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.5.3.365
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F., Loftus, G. R., & Messo, J. (1987). Some facts about “weapon focus”. Law and Human Behavior, 11, 55–62. doi:10.1007/BF01044839
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loftus, G. R., & Mackworth, N. H. (1978). Cognitive determinants of fixation location during picture viewing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 565–572. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.4.4.565
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackworth, N. H. (1965). Visual noise causes tunnel vision. Psychonomic Science, 3, 67–68. doi: 10.3758/BF03343023
   Google Scholar
• Miura, T. (1986). Coping with situational demands: A study of eye movements and peripheral vision performance. In A. G. Gale, M. H. Freeman, C. M. Haslegrave, P. Smith, & S. H. Taylor (Eds.), Vision in vehicles (pp. 205–216). North Holland: Elsevier Science.
   Google Scholar
• Motter, B. C., & Simoni, D. A. (2008). Changes in the functional visual field during search with and without eye movements. Vision Research, 48, 2382–2393. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2008.07.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nobata, T., Hakoda, Y., & Ninose, Y. (2010). The functional field of view becomes narrower while viewing negative emotional stimuli. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 886–891. doi: 10.1080/02699930902955954
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noton, D., & Stark, I. (1971). Eye movements and visual perception. Scientific American, 224, 35–43. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0671-34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 466–478. doi:10.1037/AXJ96-3445.130.3.466 doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olatunji, B. O., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Willems, J., Lohr, J. M., & Armstrong, T. (2009). Differential habituation of fear and disgust during repeated exposure to threat-relevant stimuli in contamination-based OCD: An analogue study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 118–123. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.04.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oue, W., Hakoda, Y., & Onuma, N. (2006). Kyoki no Shikakuteki-tokucho ga mokugekisha no ninchi ni oyobosu eikyo [The effects of visual features of a weapon on eyewitnesses’ cognitive processing]. Shinrigaku Kenkyu: The Japanese Journal of Psychology, 77, 443–451. doi: 10.4992/jjpsy.77.443
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Over, E. A. B., Hooge, I. T. C., Vlaskamp, B. N. S., & Erkelens, C. J. (2007). Coarse-to-fine eye movement strategy in visual search. Vision Research, 47, 2272–2280. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2007.05.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pannasch, S., Dornhoefer, S. M., Unema, P. J. A., & Velichkovsky, B. M. (2001). The omnipresent prolongation of visual fixations: Saccades are inhibited by changes in situation and in subject’s activity. Vision Research, 41, 3345–3351. doi: 10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00207-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pannasch, S., Schulz, J., & Velichkovsky, B. M. (2011). On the control of visual fixation durations in free viewing of complex images. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 73, 1120–1132. doi: 10.3758/s13414-011-0090-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, G. D., & Reed, C. L. (2014). Nonuniform changes in the distribution of visual attention from visual complexity and action: A driving simulation study. Perception, 43, 129–144. doi:10.1068/p7737 doi: 10.1068/p7620
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pelli, D. G. (1997). The video toolbox software for visual psychophysics: Transforming numbers into movies. Spatial Vision, 10, 437–442. doi: 10.1163/156856897X00366
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pickel, K. L. (1999). The influence of context on the “weapon focus” effect. Law and Human Behavior, 23, 299–311. doi: 10.1023/A:1022356431375
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reingold, E. M., & Stampe, D. M. (2000). Saccadic inhibition and gaze contingent research paradigms. In A. Kennedy, R. Radach, D. Heller, & J. Pynte (Eds.), Reading as a perceptual process (pp. 119–145). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
   Google Scholar
• Richards, E., Bennett, P. J., & Sekuler, A. B. (2006). Age related differences in learning with the useful field of view. Vision Research, 46, 4217–4231. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2006.08.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders, J. (2009). Memory impairment in the weapon focus effect. Memory & Cognition, 37, 326–335. doi: 10.3758/MC.37.3.326
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sckmidt, S. R. (2012). Memory for emotional words in sentences: The importance of emotional contrast. Cognition and Emotion, 26, 1015–1035. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2011.631986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skolnick, P., & Shaw, J. I. (2001). A comparison of eyewitness and physical evidence on mock-juror decision making. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 28, 614–630. doi: 10.1177/009385480102800504
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, Y., Hakoda, Y., Sanefuji, W., & Cheng, C. (2015). Can they see it? The functional field of view is narrower in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. PLoS One, 10, e0133237. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0133237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underwood, G., & Foulsham, T. (2006). Visual saliency and semantic incongruency influence eye movements when inspecting pictures. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 1931–1949. doi: 10.1080/17470210500416342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Võ, M. L.-H., & Wolfe, J. M. (2013). Differential electrophysiological signatures of semantic and syntactic scene processing. Psychological Science, 24, 1816–1823. doi: 10.1177/0956797613476955
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yiend, J. (2010). The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 3–47. doi: 10.1080/02699930903205698
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yiend, J., & Mathews, A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 54, 665–681. doi: 10.1080/713755991
   PubMedGoogle Scholar