Bibliography
- Abrahamsen, Rita. “‘Blair’s Africa: The Politics of Securitization and Fear’.” Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 30 (2005): 55–80.
- Abrahamsen, Rita, and Gerald Bareebe. “Uganda’s 2016 Elections: Not Even Faking it Anymore.” African Affairs 115, no. 461 (2016): 751–765.
- Balzacq, Thierry. “The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context.” European Journal of International Relations 11, no. 2 (2005): 171–201.
- Balzacq, Theirry, Sarah Leonard, and Jan Ruzicka. “‘Securitization’ Revisited: Theory and Cases.” International Relations 30, no. 4 (2016): 494–531.
- Beaulieu, Emily, and Susan D. Hyde. “In the Shadow of Democracy Promotion: Strategic Manipulation, International Observers and Election Boycotts.” Comparative Political Studies 42, no. 3 (2009): 342–415.
- Birch, Sarah. Electoral Malpractice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
- Bratton, Michael, and Sadhisk Bhoojedhur. “Africans Want Open Elections – Especially if They Bring Change.” Afrobarometer Policy Paper, 58, Afrobarometer, 2019. Accessed 4 February 2020. https://afrobarometer.org/sites/default/files/publications/Policy%20papers/ab_r7_policypaper58_africans_want_elections_especially_if_they_bring_change.pdf.
- Brown, Stephen. “Well, What can You Expect?’: Donor Officiials’ Apologetics for Hybrid Regimes in Africa.” Democratization 18, no. 2 (2011): 512–534.
- Brown, Stephen, and Rosalind Raddatz. “Dire Consequences or Empty Threats? Western Pressure for Peace, Justice and Democracy in Kenya.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 8, no. 1 (2014): 43–62.
- Buguzi, Syriacus. “Women and the Young Will Decide TZ’s Future Today.” The Citizen, October 25, 2015. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Women-and-the-young-will-decide-TZ-s-future-today-/1840340-2928762-139de34/index.html.
- Buzan, Barry, Ole Waever, and Jaap de Wilde. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1998.
- Caballero Anthony, Mely, Ralf Emmers, and Amitav Acharya. In Non-Traditional Security in Asia: Dilemmas in Securitisation. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006.
- Carothers, Thomas. “The End of the Transition Paradigm.” Journal of Democracy 13, no. 1 (2002): 5–21.
- Carter Center. The Carter Center’s Expert Mission to the Zambian Presidential and Parliamentary Elections 2016: Final Report. Atlanta, Georgia: The Carter Center.
- Cheeseman, Nic, and Brian Klaas. How to Rig an Election. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018.
- Cheeseman, Nic, Gabrielle Lynch, and Justin Willis. “Democracy and its Discontents: Understanding Kenya’s 2013 Elections.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 8, no. 1 (2014): 2–24.
- Cheeseman, Nic, Gabrielle Lynch, and Justin Willis. “How Election Monitors are Failing.” Foreign Policy, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/04/29/how-election-monitors-are-failing-uganda/.
- Chisala, Charles. “Futility of Violence in Modern Politics.” The Daily Mail, March 8, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/futility-violence-modern-politics/.
- CIPESA. State of Internet Freedom in Tanzania 2016: Charting Patterns in the Strategies African Governments Use to Stifle Citizens’ Digital Rights, CIPESA, December 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://cipesa.org/?wpfb_dl=229.
- Cote, Adam. “Agents Without Agency: Assessing the Role of the Audience in Securitization Theory.” Security Dialogue 47, no. 6 (2016): 541–558.
- Cross, Charlotte. “Cybercrime and the Policing of Politics in Tanzania.” Chap. 10 in Maggie Dwyer and Thomas Molony, Social Media and Politics in Africa: Democracy, Censorship and Security. London: Zed Books, 2019.
- Davis-Roberts, Avery, and David J. Carrell. “Assessing Elections.” In Advancing Electoral Integrity, edited by Pippa Norris, Richard W. Frank, and Ferro Martinez I Coma, 18–33. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
- Economist Intelligence Unit. Democracy Index 2015: Democracy in an Age of Anxiety. The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2016. Accessed 31 January 2020. http://dagobah.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Democracy-Index-2015-EIU.pdf.
- EISA. “EISA Election Observer Mission Report, Uganda: Presidential and Parliamentary Elections.” 18 February 2016, EISA Report No. 51, Johannesburg, South Africa. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.eisa.org.za/pdf/uga2016eomr.pdf.
- Elder, Claire, Susan Strigent, and Jonas Claes. Elections and Violent Conflict in Kenya: Making Prevention Stick. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2014.
- Elklit, Jørgen, and Andrew Reynolds. “Judging Elections and Election Management Quality by Process.” Representation 41, no. 3 (2005): 189–207.
- EUEOM. EU Election observation mission – Zambia: General Elections and Referendum 2016, Final Report, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://eeas.europa.eu/election-observation-missions/eom-zambia-2016/15300/eueom-final-report-2016-zambia-general-elections_en.
- Fisher, Jonathan, and David M. Anderson. “Authoritarianism and the Securitization of Development in Africa.” International Affairs 91, no. 1 (2015): 131–151.
- Foundation for Human Rights Initiative (FHRI). Human Rights and Elections in Uganda (2016): A call for action – Human rights violations during Uganda’s 2016 General Elections. FHRI: Kampala, June 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://www.fhri.or.ug/index.php/2015-07-22-14-08-32/thematic-reports/69-human-rights-and-elections-in-uganda-2016-a-call-for-action.
- Freedom House. Freedom in the world 2016 – Zambia. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2016/zambia.
- Ghana Centre for Democratic Development. Ghana’s 2016 Elections: Prospects for Credibility and Peacefulness, November 16, 2016. Accessed 27 June 2019. https://drive.google.com/file/d/0ByAq4dHfpyAtRlV0aFJJR2ZFcFk/view.
- Hichilema, Hakainde. “HH Says that UPND will Go Ahead with their Final Chawama Rally, Regardless of Police Advice.” Lusaka Times, August 5, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.lusakatimes.com/2016/08/05/hh-says-upnd-will-go-ahead-final-chawama-rally-regardless-police-advice/.
- Human Rights Watch. “‘Keep the People Uninformed’: Pre-Election Threats to Free Expression and Association in Uganda.” Human Rights Watch, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/uganda0116web.pdf.
- Katureebe, Obed K. “Watch Out for Politicians Who Use Media to Incite Violence.” The Daily Monitor, February 6, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/OpEd/Commentary/Watch-out-for-politicians-who-use-media-to-incite-violence/689364-3064270-rff9iez/index.html.
- Khisa, Moses. “Shrinking Democratic Space? Crisis of Consensus and Contentious Politics in Uganda.” Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 57, no. 3 (2019): 343–362.
- Kragelund, Peter. ““Donors Go Home”: Non-Traditional State Actors and the Creation of Development Space in Zambia.” Third World Quarterly 35, no. 1 (2014): 145–162.
- Kron, Josh. “Yoweri Museveni, Uganda’s President Wins a Widely Criticized Election.” The New York Times, February 20 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/21/world/africa/yoweri-museveni-ugandas-president-wins-a-widely-criticized-election.html.
- Lehoucq, Fabrice. “Electoral Fraud: Causes, Types and Consequences.” Annual Review of Political Science 6 (2003): 233–256.
- Leonard, Sarah, and Christian Kaunert. “Reconceptualizing the Audience in Seuritization Theory.” In Securitization Theory: How Security Problems Emerge and Dissolve, edited by Thierry Balzacq, 57–76. Abingdon: Routledge, 2011.
- Lynch, Gabrielle, Nic Cheeseman, and Justin Willis. “From Peace Campaigns to Peaceocracy: Elections, Order and Authority in Africa.” African Affairs 184, no. 473 (2019): 603–627.
- Mabon, Simon, and Saloni Kapur. In Securitisation in the Non-West. Abingdon: Routledge, 2019.
- Maweu, Jacinta. “‘Peace Propaganda’? The Application of Chomsky’s Propaganda Model to the Daily Nation’s Coverage of the 2013 Kenyan Elections.” Communicatio 43, no. 2 (2017): 168–186.
- Mbebwe, Kelvin. “Public Order Act applied fairly.” Daily Mail, February 8, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/public-order-act-applied-fairly/.
- McDonald, Matt. “Securitization and the Construction of Security.” European Journal of International Relations 14, no. 4 (2008): 563–587.
- McNeish, Hannah. “Tanzania Accused of Making Laws on the Hoof in ‘Kafkaesque’ Curb on Free Speech.” The Guardian, July 8, 2015. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jul/08/tanzania-laws-curb-free-speech-social-media-jamii-forums.
- Musa, Zulfa. “100 Youth Preparing for Violent Acts: RPC.” The Citizen, October 24, 2015. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/news/1840340-2928388-12l6311z/index.html.
- Musisi, Frederic. “UCC Shutdown of Social Media Backfires.” The Daily Monitor, February 19, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/Elections/UCC-shutdown-of-social-media-backfires/2787154-3083658-ib4w8t/index.html.
- Musisi, Frederic. “Why are Campaigns Taking a Violent Turn?” The Daily Monitor, December 27, 2015. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/Magazines/PeoplePower/Why-are-campaigns-taking-a-violent-turn/689844-3010552-4r70bp/index.html.
- Mvula, Steven. “Stop insults, HH advised.” The Daily Mail, May 9, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/stop-insults-hh-advised/.
- Nyanje, Peter. “My Take on This: TCRA Should Rescind this Oppressive Directive.” The Citizen, September 16, 2015. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/oped/TCRA-should-rescind-this-oppressive-directive/1840568-2872970-hxs5dr/index.html.
- Olaniyan, Azeez, and Olumuyiwa Babatunde Amao. “Election as Warfare: Militarization of Elections and the Challenges of Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria.” International Affairs Forum Spring 2015 (2015): 71–82.
- Paget, Dan. “Tanzania: Shrinking Space and Opposition Protest.” Journal of Democracy 28, no. 3 (2017): 153–167.
- Pitse, Reuben. “Police Preparing for 2019 Election Violence – Claims.” The Sunday Standard, 25 September 2017. Accessed 27 June 2019. http://www.sundaystandard.info/police-preparing-2019-election-violence-claims.
- Reuters. “Two Killed in Malawi Campaign Violence – Police.” Reuters, Monday 17 March 2014. Accessed 27 June 2019. https://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFBREA2G09420140317.
- Saramba, Peter. “Missing the Point: Dearth of Professionalism in the Police is Worrying.” The Citizen, June 22, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/oped/Dearth-of-professionalism-in-the-police-is-worrying/1840568-3261894-format-xhtml-mjh42pz/index.html.
- Schedler, Andreas. “Elections without Democracy: The Menu of Manipulation.” Journal of Democracy 13, no. 2 (2002): 36–50.
- Sengoba, Nicholas. “Why the Message of Hope is Vital for the 2016 Election.” The Daily Monitor, December 27, 2015. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/OpEd/Commentary/message-hope-vital-2016-election/689364-2949678-format-xhtml-u31pwez/index.html.
- Simpser, Alberto. Why Governments and Parties Manipulate Elections: Theory, Practice and Implications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
- Sjöstedt, Roxanna, Mimmi Söderberg Kovacs, and Anders Themnér. “Demagogues of Hate or Shepherds of Peace? Examining the Threat Construction Processes of Warlord Democrats in Sierra Leone and Liberia.” Journal of International Relations and Development 22 (2019): 560–583.
- Söderberg Kovac, Mimmi, and Jesper Bjarnesen. In Violence in African Elections: Between Democracy and Big Man Politics. London: Zed Books, 2018.
- Stritzel, Holger. “Towards a Theory of Securitization: Copenhagen and Beyond.” European Journal of International Relations 13, no. 3 (2007): 357–383.
- Sundberg, Molly. “Donors Dealing with “aid Effectiveness” Inconsistencies: National Staff in Foreign aid Agencies in Tanzania.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 13, no. 3 (2019): 445–464.
- Tapscott, Rebecca. “Where the Wild Things are Not: Crime Preventers and the 2016 Presidential Elections.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. 4 (2016): 693–712.
- The Citizen. “Optimism and Ecstasy Greet Magufuli Victory.” October 30, 2015. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Optimism-and-ecstacy-greet-Magufuli-victory/-/1840340/2935608/-/format/xhtml/-/lrk4rn/-/index.html.
- The Daily Mail. “Don’t Drag UPDF into Election Process.” December 19, 2016. Acessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/OpEd/Editorial/Dont-drag-UPDF-into-election-process/689360-3002610-view-printVersion-pboocmz/index.html
- The Daily Mail. “Police Ops should Not Cause Terror.” Letter to the editor, March 8, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/police-ops-cause-terror/
- The Daily Mail. “UPND Danger to Society.” August 3. 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/upnd-danger-to-society/.
- The Daily Monitor. “Elections will be Peaceful, Government Reassures.” February 1, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Elections-will-be-peaceful–says-government/688334-3057616-a2bwdg/index.html.
- The Daily Monitor. “Opposition Right to Contest Poll Outcome – Rights Watchdog.” February 28, 2016. Accessed January 3, 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Opposition-right-to-contest-poll-outcome–Rights-watchdog/688334-3094906-ttgjkdz/index.html.
- The Daily Monitor. “Please Stop Beating Those War Drums … .” January 28, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/OpEd/Editorial/Please-stop-beating-those-war-drums-/689360-3051284-gsibuxz/index.html.
- The Daily Monitor. “Preach Peace but Fix Causes of Conflict.” February 7, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/OpEd/Editorial/Preach-peace-but-fix-causes-of-conflict/689360-3065222-hdbgkm/index.html.
- United States Department of State. 2016 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Uganda, March 3, 2017. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.refworld.org/docid/58ec89afc7.html.
- United States Department of State. 2016 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Zambia, March 3, 2017. Accessed 17 April 2019. https://www.refworld.org/docid/58ec899f13.html.
- Vokes, Richard, and Sam Wilkins. “Party, Patronage and Coercion in the NRM’s 2016 re-Election in Uganda: Imposed or Embedded?” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. 4 (2016): 581–600.
- Vuori, Juha. A. “Illocutionary Logic and Strands of Securitization: Applying the Theory of Securitization to the Study of non-Democratic Political Orders.” European Journal of International Relations 14, no. 1 (2008): 65–99.
- Waever, Ole. “Securitization and Descuritization.” In On Security, edited by Ronnie Lipschutz, 46–86. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.
- Wesaka, Anthony. “Media Practitioners, Rights Activists Condemn Police Brutality on Journalists.” The Daily Monitor, March 4, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. https://www.monitor.co.ug/News/National/Media-practitioners–rights-activists-condemn-police-brutality/688334-3102538-tajrw3z/index.html.
- Wilkinson, Claire. “The Copenhagen School on Tour in Kyrgyzstan: Is Security Theory Useable Outside Europe?” Security Dialogue 38, no. 1 (2007): 5–25.
- Zimba, Jack. “Lungu Resounds Warning to Troublemakers.” The Daily Mail, July 27, 2016. Accessed 3 January 2020. http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/lungu-resounds-warning-to-troublemakers/.