Reference list
- Abbott, K. W., & Snidal, D. (2013). Law, legalization, and politics: An agenda for the next generation of IR/IL scholars. In J. L. Dunoff & M. A. Pollack (Eds.), Interdisciplinary perspectives on international law and international relations (pp. 33–56). Cambridge University Press.
- Abrahamsen, R., & Williams, M. C. (2011). Security beyond the state. Private security in international politics. Cambridge University Press.
- Amnesty International. (2009). Improved human rights policies and practices within Private Military and Security Companies (PMSCs). https://web.archive.org/web/20160330042524/http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/business-and-human-rights/private-military-and-security-companies/improved-human-rights-policies-and-practices-w
- Avant, D. (2016). Pragmatic networks and transnational governance of private military and security services. International Studies Quarterly, 60(2), 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqv018
- Bachrach, P., & Baratz, M. S. (1962). Two faces of power. American Political Science Review, 56(4), 947–952. https://doi.org/10.2307/1952796
- Barnett, M., & Duvall, R. (2005). Power in international politics. International Organization, 59(1), 39–75. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818305050010
- Barnett, M., & Finnemore, M. (1999). The politics, power, and pathologies of international organizations. International Organization, 53(4), 699–732. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081899551048
- Baumann-Pauly, D., Nolan, J., van Heerden, A., & Samway, M. (2016). Industry-specific multi-stakeholder initiatives that govern corporate human rights standards: Legitimacy assessments of the fair labor association and the global network initiative. Journal of Business Ethics, 143(4), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3076-z.
- Braithwaite, J., & Drahos, P. (2000). Global business regulation. Cambridge University Press.
- Brooks, D. (2009, April 15). IPOA submission to the United Nations working group on the use of Mercenaries. [email protected].
- Brooks, D., & Chorev, M. (2008). Ruthless humanitarianism. Why marginalizing private peacekeeping kills people. In M. Caparini, D.-P. Barker, & A. Alexandra (Eds.), Private military and security companies: Ethics, policies and civil-military relations (pp. 116–131). Routledge.
- Butler, J. (1999). Gender trouble. Routledge.
- Buzatu, A.-M. (2015). Towards an international code of conduct for private security providers: A view from inside a multistakeholder process (SSR Paper 12). Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF). http://www.dcaf.ch/content/download/293835/4626651/file/DCAF-SSR-12.pdf
- Carr, M. (2015). Power plays in global internet governance. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 43(2), 640–659. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305829814562655
- Casier, T. (2017). The different faces of power in European Union–Russia relations. Cooperation and Conflict, 53(1), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836717729179
- Cheyns, E., & Riisgaard, L. (2014). The exercise of power through multi-stakeholder initiatives for sustainable agriculture and its inclusion and exclusion outcomes. Agriculture and Human Values, 31(3), 409–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-9508-4
- Cockayne, J. (2008). Regulating private military and security companies: The content, negotiation, weaknesses and promise of the Montreux document. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 13(3), 401–428. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krp006
- Commission on Wartime Contracting. (2011). Transforming wartime contracting: Controlling costs, reducing risks. http://psm.du.edu/media/documents/us_research_and_oversight/cwc/reports/us_cwc_final_report.pdf
- Cutler, C. (2010). The legitimacy of private transnational governance: Experts and the transnational market for force. Socio-Economic Review, 8(1), 157–185. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwp027
- del Prado, J. L. G. (2008). Private military and security companies and the UN Working Group on the use of Mercenaries. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 13(3), 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krp010
- del Prado, J. L. G. (2010). A Pyrrhic victory at the United Nations over the 21st century’s ‘private industry’? https://www.business-humanrights.org/de/neuste-meldungen/doc-a-pyrrhic-victory-at-the-united-nations-over-the-21st-centurys-privateer-industry/
- de Souza, M. (2015). An offer developing countries could not refuse: How powerful states created the World Trade Organisation. Journal of International Relations and Development, 18(2), 155–181. https://doi.org/10.1057/jird.2013.18
- DeWinter-Schmitt, R. (2017). International soft law initiatives: The opportunities and limitations of the Montreux document, ICoC, and security operations management system standards. In H. Torroja (Ed.), Public international law and human rights violations by private military and security companies (pp. 105–126). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66098-1_6.
- Dingwerth, K., & Pattberg, P. (2009). World politics and organizational fields: The case of transnational sustainability governance. European Journal of International Relations, 15(4), 707–743. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066109345056
- Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. (2010). Comments received on the draft for consultation. Global code of conduct for private security companies and private military companies. http://web.archive.org/web/20150416111126/http://www.icoc-psp.org/uploads/2010.16.10_-_Comments.pdf
- Foreign and Commonwealth Office. (2009). Impact assessment on promoting high standards of conduct by private military and security companies (PMSCs) internationally.
- Gruber, L. (2005). Power politics and the institutionalization of international relations. In M. Barnett, & R. Duvall (Eds.), Power in global governance (pp. 102–129). Cambridge University Press.
- Hayward, C. R. (2000). De-facing power. Cambridge University Press.
- Hilary, J. (2007, May 15). Private military and security companies – dogs of war or a force for peace? War on want. Speech at conflict issues APPG meeting. (http://www.google.de/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&ved=0CHQQFjAH&url=http%3A%2F%2Fconflictissues.org.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FJohn-Hilary-transcript.doc&ei=d_TXUr6TMsqPtAbn_YDAAQ&usg=AFQjCNECkElJcta8fe9N2HfPYESNNdjlFQ&sig2=9tM0zMApGyicmXEX8zPaQw&bvm=bv.59568121,d.Yms
- Human Rights Council. (2010a, October 1). Human rights council establishes working group on activities of private security companies, renews mandates on Sudan and Somalia. https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10407&LangID=E
- Human Rights Council. (2010b, September 14). Human rights council holds interactive debate on contemporary forms of slavery and on Mercenaries. https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10327&LangID=E
- Human Rights Council. (2011). Draft of a possible convention on private military and security companies (PMSCs) for consideration and action by the Human Rights Council. A/HRC/WG.10/1/2. A/HRC/WG.10/1/2.
- Human Rights Council. (2017, September 11–29). Report of the open-ended intergovernmental working group to consider the possibility of elaborating an international regulatory framework on the regulation, monitoring and oversight of the activities of private military and security companies on its sixth session. A/HRC/36/36.
- Human Rights First. (2011, August 31). Wartime contracting report makes clear case for reforms. https://web.archive.org/web/20120330062701/http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/2011/08/31/wartime-contracting-report-makes-clear-case-for-reforms/
- Ikenberry, G. J. (2001). American power and the empire of capitalist democracy. Review of International Studies, 27(5), 191–212. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210501008087
- International Code of Conduct Association. (2017). Approved amendment to the code of conduct: New transitional membership process. https://www.icoca.ch/en/approved-amendment-code-conduct-new-transitional-membership-process
- Interview#1. (2014). Personal interview with NGO representative, March 31.
- Interview#2. (2014). Personal interview with industry representative, March 31.
- Interview#3. (2014). Personal interview with former NGO- and PMSC-practitioner, April 1.
- Interview#4. (2014). Personal interview with PMSC representative, April 2.
- Interview#6. (2014). Personal interview with NGO representative, May 16.
- Interview#8. (2014). Telephone interview with NGO representative, May 22.
- Interview#10. (2014). Telephone interview with PMSC representative, June 13.
- Jerbi, S. (2013). The international code of conduct for private security service providers (Academy Briefing No. 4). Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights. https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/Publications/Academy%20Briefings/Icoc_web_final.pdf
- Joachim, J., & Schneiker, A. (2015). NGOs and the price of governance: The trade-offs between regulating and criticizing private military and security companies. Critical Military Studies, 1(3), 185–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/23337486.2015.1050270
- Joachim, J., & Schneiker, A. (2019). Private security and identity politics: Ethical hero warriors, professional managers and new humanitarians. Routledge.
- Johnson, K. R. (1996/1997). “Aliens” and the U.S. immigration laws: The social and legal construction of nonpersons. The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review, 28(2), 263–292. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40176418
- Koh, H. H. (2010, November 9). A response to introductory speeches from Swiss State Secretary Maurer, industry leaders, and civil society representatives. https://web.archive.org/web/20130413221345/http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/179307.pdf
- Krahmann, E. (2012). From ‘Mercenaries’ to ‘private security contractors’: The (re)construction of armed security providers in international legal discourses. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 40(2), 343–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305829811426673
- Krahmann, E. (2017). From performance to performativity: The legitimization of US security contracting and its consequences. Security Dialogue, 48(6), 541–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010617722650
- Kruck, A. (2014). Theorising the use of private military and security companies: A synthetic perspective. Journal of International Relations and Development, 17(1), 112–141. http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jird/journal/v17/n1/abs/jird20134a.html. https://doi.org/10.1057/jird.2013.4
- Kruck, A., & Spencer, A. (2013). Contested stories of commercial security: Self- and media narratives of private military and security companies. Critical Studies on Security, 1(3), 326–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/21624887.2013.857467
- Leander, A. (2005). The power to construct international security: On the significance of private military companies. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 33(3), 803–825. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298050330030601
- Leander, A. (2012). What do codes of conduct do? Hybrid constitutionalization and militarization in military markets. Global Constitutionalism, 1(1), 91–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045381711000074
- Leander, A. (2016a). The politics of whitelisting: Regulatory work and topologies in commercial security. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 34(1), 48–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775815616971
- Leander, A. (2016b). Whitelisting and the rule of law: Legal technologies and governance in contemporary commercial security. In M. Heupel, & T. Reinold (Eds.), The rule of law in Global governance (pp. 205–236). Palgrave.
- Leander, A., & van Munster, R. (2007). Private security contractors in the debate about Darfur: Reflecting and reinforcing neo-liberal governmentality. International Relations, 21(2), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117807077004
- Levine, D. (2010). Consensus emerges over need to hold military contractors accountable. Law and Security Program, Human Rights First.
- Liu, H.-Y. (2015). Cybersecurity and Cyberwarfare as emerging gaps in private military and security company regulation: Thoughts for the UN Working Group on the use of Mercenaries. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Mercenaries/WG/Event2015/HinYanLiu.pdf
- Lukes, S. (2005). Power. Palgrave Macmillan.
- Mattern, J. B., & Zarakol, A. (2016). Hierarchies in world politics. International Organization, 70(3), 623–654. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818316000126
- Mena, S., & Palazzo, G. (2012). Input and output legitimacy of multi-stakeholder initiatives. Business Ethics Quarterly, 22(3), 527–556. https://doi.org/10.5840/beq201222333
- Morse, J. C., & Keohane, R. O. (2014). Contested multilateralism. The Review of International Organizations, 9(4), 385–412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-014-9188-2
- Murphy, H., & Kellow, A. (2013). Forum shopping in global governance: Understanding states, Business and NGOs in multiple arenas. Global Policy, 4(2), 139–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-5899.2012.00195.x
- Percy, S. (2007). Morality and regulation. In S. Chesterman, & C. Lehnardt (Eds.), From Mercenaries to market: The rise and regulation of private military companies (pp. 11–28). Oxford University Press.
- Percy, S. (2012). Regulating the private security industry: A story of regulating the last war. International Review of the Red Cross, 94(887), 941–960. https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/irrc-887-percy.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383113000258
- Pingeot, L. (2012). Dangerous partnership. Private military & security companies and the UN. Global Policy Forum and Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung. https://www.rosalux.de/fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/sonst_publikationen/studie_dangerous_partnership.pdf
- Pingeot, L. (2014). Contracting insecurity. Private military and security companies and the future of the United nations. Global Policy Forum and Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung. http://www.globalpolicy.org/images/pdfs/GPFEurope/PMSC_2014_Contracting_Insecurity_web.pdf
- Prem, B. (2018). Who am I? The blurring of the Private Military and Security Company (PMSC) category. In O. Bures & H. Carrapico (Eds.), Security privatization: How non-security-related private businesses shape security governance (pp. 51–76). Springer.
- Prem, B. (2020). Private Military and Security Companies as global governors: From Barricades to boardrooms. Routledge.
- Raustiala, K., & Victor, D. G. (2004). The regime complex for plant genetic resources. International Organization, 58(2), 277–309. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818304582036
- Schäferhoff, M., Campe, S., & Kaan, C. (2009). Transnational public-private partnerships in international relations: Making sense of concepts, research frameworks, and results. International Studies Review, 11(3), 451–474. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2486.2009.00869.x
- Schneiker, A., & Joachim, J. (2018). Revisiting global governance in multistakeholder initiatives: Club governance based on ideational prealignments. Global Society, 32(1), 2–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600826.2017.1377688
- Seiberth, C. (2014). Private military and security companies in international law. A challenge for non-binding norm: The Montreux document and the international code of conduct for private security service providers. Intersentia.
- Smart, C. (1990). Law’s power, the sexed body, and feminist discourse. Journal of Law and Society, 17(2), 194–210. https://doi.org/10.2307/1410085
- Spicer, T. (1999). Interview with Lt Col Tim Spicer. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 13(1), 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557579908400280
- Steinberg, R. H. (2002). In the shadow of law or power? Consensus-based bargaining and outcomes in the GATT/WTO. International Organization, 56(2), 339–374. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3078608. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081802320005504
- Stürchler, N. (2008). The Swiss initiative comes alive. Seventeen states agree on how to legally deal with private security companies. Journal of International Peace Operations, 4(3), 9–12.
- Tougas, M.-L. (2009). Some comments and observations on the Montreux document. Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, 12(December), 321–345. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1389135909000129
- Van Leeuven, T., & Wodak, R. (1999). Legitimizing immigration control: A discourse-historical analysis. Discourse Studies, 1(1), 83–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445699001001005
- van Meegdenburg, H. (2015). What the research on PMSCs discovered and neglected: An appraisal of the literature. Contemporary Security Policy, 36(2), 321–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2015.1061755
- Van Tulder, R. (2012). Foreword – the necessity of multi-stakeholder initiatives. In M. van Huijstee (Ed.), Multi-stakeholder initiatives: A strategic guide for civil society organizations (pp. 8–9). SOMO. https://www.somo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Multi-stakeholder-initiatives.pdf
- Voillat, C. (2012). Pushing the humanitarian agenda through engagement with business actors: The ICRC’s experience. International Review of the Red Cross, 94(887), 1089–1114. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1816383113000507
- War on Want. (2013, September 19). Charity slams conduct code for private military and security companies. http://web.archive.org/web/20140219092301/http://www.waronwant.org/news/press-releases/17987-charity-slams-conduct-code-for-private-military-and-security-companies
- War on Want & Campaign Against Arms Trade. (2006). Corporate Mercenaries: The threat of private military and security companies. https://web.archive.org/web/20100616185416/https://www.waronwant.org/attachments/Corporate%20Mercenaries.pdf
- Westerwinter, O. (2016). Bargaining in networks. Relationship and the governance of conflict diamonds. In D. Avant, & O. Westerwinter (Eds.), The new power politics: Networks and transnational security governance (pp. 196–223). Oxford University Press.
- White, N. D. (2011). The privatisation of military and security functions and human rights: Comments on the UN Working Group’s draft convention. Human Rights Law Review, 11(1), 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngq053