The specification of ethnic cleavages and ethnopolitical groups for the analysis of democratic competition in contemporary Africa

Notes

• Bratton , Michael and van de Walle , Nicolas . 1997 . Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bienen , Henry and Herbst , Jeffrey . 1996 . ‘The Relationship Between Political and Economic Reform in Africa’ . Comparative Politics , 29 ( 1 ) : 26
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bratton , Michael and van de Walle , Nicholas . 1994 . ‘Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa’ . World Politics , 46 ( 4 ) : 462
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clapham , Christopher . 1993 . ‘Democratisation in Africa: Obstacles and Prospects’ . Third World Quarterly , 14 ( 3 ) : 423 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Decalo , Samuel . 1992 . ‘The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratisation in Africa’ . African Affairs , 91 ( 1 ) : 35
   Google Scholar
• Olaitin , Wale Are . 1992 . “ ‘Democracy and Democratization in Africa: Not Yet the Glorious Dawn’ ” . In Democratic Transition in Africa , Edited by: Caron , Bernard , Gboyega , A. and Osaghae , Eghosa E. 423 – 34 . Ibadan : CREDU .
   Google Scholar
• Randall , Vicky and Scarritt , James R. 1996 . ‘Cautionary Notes on Democratization: Lessons from India and Zambia’ . Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics , 34 ( 2 ) : 19 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Rasheed , Sadig . 1995 . ‘The Democratization Process and Popular Participation in Africa: Emerging Realities and the Challenges Ahead’ . Development and Change , 26 ( 2 ) : 333 – 54 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandbrook , Richard . 1996 . ‘Transitions without Consolidation: Democratization in Six African Cases’ . Third World Quarterly , 17 ( 1 ) : 69 – 70 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin , Doh Chull . 1994 . ‘On the Third Wave of Democratisation: A Synthesis and Evaluation of Recent Theory and Research’ . World Politics , 47 ( 1 ) : 168
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Udogu , E. Ike . 1996 . ‘Incomplete Metamorphic Democracy as a Conceptual Framework in the Analysis of African Politics: An Exploratory Investigation’ . Journal of Asian and African Studies , 31 ( 1–2 ) : 5 – 20 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiseman , John A. 1996 . The New Struggle for Democracy in Africa , 156 – 74 . Aldershot : Avebury .
   Google Scholar
• Young , Crawford . 1994 . “ ‘Democratization in Africa: The Contradictions of a Political Imperative’ ” . In Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Africa , Edited by: Widner , Jennifer . 241 Baltimore , MD : Johns Hopkins University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bates , Robert . 1983 . “ ‘Modernization, Ethnic Competition and the Rational of Politics in Contemporary Africa’ ” . In State Versus Ethnic Claims: African Policy Dilemmas , Edited by: Rothchild , Donald and Olorunsola , Victor . 152 – 71 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Doornbos , Martin . 1991 . ‘Linking the Future to the Past: Ethnicity and Pluralism’ . Review of African Political Economy , : 53 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Kasfir , Nelson . 1979 . ‘Explaining Ethnic Political Participation’ . World Politics , 31 ( 4 ) : 365 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukonoweshuro , Eliphas G. 1990 . ‘Ethnicity, Class and Clientilism in Sierra Leone Politics: A Methodological Critique’ . Plural Societies , 20 ( 2 ) : 65 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Saul , John S. 1979 . The State and Revolution in Eastern Africa , 391 – 420 . New York : Monthly Review Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lipset , Seymour Martin and Rokkan , Stein . 1967 . “ ‘Cleavage Structures, Party Systems and Voter Alignments’ ” . In Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross‐National Perspectives , Edited by: Lipset , Seymour Martin and Rokkan , Stein . 1 – 64 . New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wallerstein , Immanuel . “ ‘Class, Tribe, and Party in West African Politics’ ” . 497 – 518 . ibid.
   Google Scholar
• Mozaffar , Shaheen . 1995 . “ ‘The Institutional Logic of Ethnic Politics: A Prolegomenon’ ” . In Ethnic Conflict and Democratisation in Africa , Edited by: Glickman , Harvey . 34 – 69 . Atlanta , GA : African Studies Association Press .
   Google Scholar
• Young , Crawford and Turner , Thomas . 1985 . The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State , 138 – 63 . Madison , WI : University ofWisconsin Press .
   Google Scholar
• Degboe , Kouassi A. 1995 . Elections et Realités Sociologiques au Benin , Cotonou : Intermonde Editions .
   Google Scholar
• Osaghae , Eghosa E. 1998 . ‘Managing Multiple Minority Problems in a Divided Society: The Nigerian Experience’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 36 ( 1 ) : 1 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner , Daniel N. 1998 . “ ‘The Institutional Origins of Ethnic Politics in Zambia’ ” . Harvard University . PhD dissertation
   Google Scholar
• Gurr , Ted Robert . 1993 . Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflict , Washington, DC : United States Institute of Peace Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gurr , Ted Robert . 1996 . “ ‘Minorities at Risk III Dataset: Users' Manual’ ” . Center for International Development and Conflict Management, University of Maryland .
   Google Scholar
• Gurr , Ted Robert . 1993 . ‘Why Minorities Rebel: A Global Analysis of Communal Mobilisation and Conflict Since 1945’ . International Political Science Review , 14 ( 2 ) : 161 – 201 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurr , Ted Robert and Scarritt , James R. 1989 . ‘Minorities at Risk: A Global Survey’ . Human Rights Quarterly , 11 ( 3 ) : 375 – 405 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarritt , James R. and McMillan , Susan . 1995 . ‘Protest and Rebellion in Africa: Explaining Conflicts Between Ethnic Minorities and the State in the 1980s’ . Comparative Political Studies , 28 ( 1 ) : 323 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison , Donald . 1972 . Black Africa: A Comparative Handbook , New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Morrison , Donald . 1989 . Black Africa: A Comparative Handbook , second edition , New York : Paragon House .
   Google Scholar
• Middleton , John . 1997 . “ ‘Ethnic and Identity Groups’ ” . In Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara , Edited by: Middleton , John . Vol.4 , 477 – 563 . New York : Charles Scribner's Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Morrison . Black Africa , 415 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• Morrison . Black Africa , 421
   Google Scholar
• Murdock , George Peter . 1959 . Africa: Its Peoples and Their Culture History , New York : McGraw‐Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Gurr . “ ‘Minorities at Risk III Dataset’ ” . 9
   Google Scholar
• Brennan , T.O. 1987 . ‘Angola: From Crisis to Catastrophe’ . CS Quarterly , 11 ( 4 ) : 49 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• Marcum , John A. 1978 . The Angolan Revolution , Vol.2 , Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Collelo , Thomas , ed. 1989 . Angola: A Country Study , Washington, DC : United States Department of the Army .
   Google Scholar
• Skinner , Eliott P. 1989 . The Mossi of Burkina Faso: Chiefs, Politicians, and Soldiers , Prospect Heights , IL : Waveland Press .
   Google Scholar
• 1998 . Africa South of the Sahara , 27th edition , 209 – 11 . London : Europa Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Englebert , Pierre . 1996 . Burkina Faso: Unsteady Statehood in West Africa , 119 – 26 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Austin , Dennis . 1964 . Politics in Ghana, 1946–1960 , London : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ayee , Joseph R.A. 1997 . ‘The December 1996 General Elections in Ghana’ . Electoral Studies , 16 ( 3 ) : 416 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chazan , Naomi . 1983 . An Anatomy of Ghanaian Politics: Managing Political Recession, 1969–1982 , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jeffries , Richard and Thomas , Clare . 1993 . ‘The Ghanaian Elections of 1992’ . African Affairs , 92 ( 368 ) : 331 – 66 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkan , Joel D. 1994 . “ ‘Divergence and Convergence in Kenya and Tanzania: Pressures for Reform’ ” . In Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania , Edited by: Barkan , Joel D. 10 Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• McHenry , Dean . 1994 . Limited Choices: The Political Struggle for Socialism in Tanzania , 189 – 213 . Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Okema , Michael . 1996 . Political Culture in Tanzania , Lampeter : Edwin Mellen Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ofcansky , Thomas P. and Yeager , Rodger . 1997 . Historical Dictionary of Tanzania , second edition , Lanham , MD : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Murphee , Marshall W. 1988 . ‘The Salience of Ethnicity in African States: A Zimbabwean Case Study’ . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 11 ( 2 ) : 119 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sithole , Masipula . 1980 . ‘Ethnicity and Factionalism in Zimbabwe Nationalist Politics, 1957–79’ . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 3 ( 1 ) : 17 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ethnologue . 1996 . Ethnologue Languages of the World , Boston : Ethnologue .
   Google Scholar
• Magnusson , Bruce . 1996 . “ ‘Representation and Territorial Administration: Reconciling Ethnoregionalism with Democracy in Benin’ ” . In MacArthur Consortium Research Series on International Peace and Cooperation , Madison , WI : University of Wisconsin Global Studies Program . No.6
   Google Scholar
• Guichard , Martine . 1990 . ‘L’ “ethnicisation” de la société peule du Borgou (Benin)’ . Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines , 30 ( 1 ) : 17 – 44 .
   Google Scholar
• Morton , Fred . 1989 . Historical Dictionary of Botswana , second edition , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Solvay , Jacqueline . 1994 . ‘From Shame to Pride: Politicized Ethnicity in the Kalahari, Botswana’ . Canadian Journal of African Studies , 28 ( 2 ) : 254 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samatar , Abdi Ismail . 1997 . ‘Leadership and Ethnicity in the Making of African State Models’ . Third World Quarterly , 18 ( 4 ) : 687 – 707 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiseman , John A. 1995 . ‘The October 1994 Elections in Botswana’ . Electoral Studies , 14 ( 3 ) : 323 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Englebert , Ethnologue and Lemarchand , Skinner Rene . 1994 . Ethnocide as Discourse and Practice , Washington, DC : Woodrow Wilson Center Press .
   Google Scholar
• Takougang , Joseph . 1996 . ‘The 1992 Multiparty Elections in Cameroon: Prospects for Democracy and Democratization’ . Journal of Asian and African Studies , 31 ( 1–2 ) : 52 – 65 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takougang , Joseph . 1997 . “ ‘Cameroon: Biya and Incremental Reform’ ” . In Political Reform in Francophone Africa , Edited by: Clark , John F. and Gardinier , David E. 162 – 81 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Konings , Piet and Nyamnjoh , Francis B. 1997 . ‘The Anglophone Problem in Cameroon’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 35 ( 2 ) : 207 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , Willard R. 1970 . The Cameroon Federation: Political Integration in a Fragmentary Society , 42 – 67 . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• LeVine , Victor T. 1964 . The Cameroons: from Mandate to Independence , 5 – 14 . Berkeley , CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lobban , Richard A. 1995 . Cape Verde: Crioulo Colony to Independent Nation , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• O'Toole , Thomas , Clark and Gardinier . “ ‘Central African Republic: Political Reform and Social Malaise’ ” . 109 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Decalo , Samuel . 1989 . Historical Dictionary of Chad , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lanne , Bernard . “ ‘Chad: Regime Change, Increased Insecurity, and Blockage of Further Reforms’ ” . Edited by: Clarke and Gardinier . 267 – 86 .
   Google Scholar
• Nolutshungu , Sam C. 1996 . Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad , Charlottesville , VA : University of Virginia Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ottenheimer , Martin and Ottenheimer , Harriet . 1994 . Historical Dictionary of the Comoros Islands , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Turner , Thomas . “ ‘Flying High Above the Toads: Mobutu and Stalemated Democracy’ ” . Edited by: Gardinier , Clark and . 246 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Leslie , Winsome J. 1993 . Zaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State , 68 – 71 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Weiss , Herbert . 1967 . Political Protest in the Congo: The Parti Solidaire Africain During the Independence Struggle , Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Young , Crawford . 1965 . Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence , 232 – 72 . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Young , Crawford . 1976 . The Politics of Cultural Pluralism , 163 – 215 . Madison , WI : University of Wisconsin Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bobb , F. Scott . 1988 . Historical Dictionary of Zaire , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• 1996 . African Recorder (Delhi) , 35 ( 23 (4‐ ) 17 November
   Google Scholar
• Clark , John F. “ ‘Congo: Transition and the Struggle to Consolidate’ ” . Edited by: Clark and Gardinier . 62 – 85 .
   Google Scholar
• Clark , John F. 1997 . ‘Petro‐Politics in Congo’ . Journal of Democracy , 8 ( 3 ) : 62 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decalo , Samuel . 1996 . Historical Dictionary of Congo , Lanham , MD : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lyons , Terrence and Samatar , Ahmed I. 1995 . Somalia, State Collapse, Multilateral Intervention and Strategies for Political Reconstruction , Washington, DC : Brookings Institution .
   Google Scholar
• Woodward , Peter . 1996 . The Horn of Africa: State Politics and International Relations , London : Tauris Academic Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Sundiata , Ibrahim K. 1990 . Equatorial Guinea: Colonialism, State Terror and the Search for Stability , 9 – 12 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Iyob , Ruth . 1995 . The Eritrean Struggle for Independence , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Markakis , John . 1987 . National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Negash , Tekeste . 1997 . Eritrea and Ethiopia: The Federal Experience , New Brunswick , NJ : Transaction .
   Google Scholar
• Pateman , Roy . 1990 . Eritrea: Even the Stones are Burning , Trenton , NJ : Red Sea Press .
   Google Scholar
• Scarritt , James R. “ ‘Communal Conflict and Contention for Power in Africa South of the Sahara’ ” . Edited by: Gurr . 277 – 86 .
   Google Scholar
• Woldemikael , Tekle M. 1993 . “ ‘The Cultural Construction of Eritrean Nationalist Movements’ ” . In The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism , Edited by: Young , Crawford . 179 – 99 . Madison , WI : University of Wisconsin Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ali , Mohammed . 1996 . Ethnicity, Politics and Society in Northeast Africa , Lanham , MD : University Press of America .
   Google Scholar
• Baxter , P.T.W. 1994 . “ ‘The Creation and Constitution of Oromo Nationality’ ” . In Ethnicity and Conflict in the Horn of Africa , Edited by: Fukui , Katsuyoshi and Markakis , John . 167 – 86 . Oxford : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Berhanu , Kassahun . 1998 . “ ‘Democracy, State‐Building, and “Nations” Ethiopia’ ” . In Democratization in Late Twentieth‐Century Africa , Edited by: Gros , Jean‐Germain . 77 – 96 . Westport , CT : Greenwood Press .
   Google Scholar
• Clapham , Christopher . 1988 . Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Engedayehu , Walle . 1993 . ‘Ethiopia: Democracy and the Politics of Ethnicity’ . Africa Today , 40 ( 2 ) : 29 – 52 .
   Google Scholar
• Joireman , Sandra Fullerton . 1997 . ‘Opposition Politics and Ethnicity in Ethiopia: We Will All Go Down Together’ . Journal of Modem African Studies , 35 ( 3 ) : 387 – 407 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsky , George A. 1962 . Ethiopia: Its People, Its Society, Its Culture , New Haven , CT : HRAF Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mengisteab , Kidane . 1997 . ‘New Approaches to State Building in Africa: The Case of Ethiopia's Ethnic‐Based Federalism’ . African Studies Review , 40 ( 3 ) : 111 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• Salih , M.A. Mohamed and Markakis , John , eds. 1998 . Ethnicity and the State in Eastern Africa , 42 – 61 . 95 – 146 . Uppsala : Nordiska Afrikainstitutet .
   Google Scholar
• Young , Crawford . The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism 138 – 77 .
   Google Scholar
• Young , John . 1997 . Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia: The Tigray Peoples’ Liberation Front, 1975–1991 , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Young , John . 1998 . ‘Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia’ . Third World Quarterly , 19 ( 2 ) : 191 – 204 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes , James F. 1992 . Gabon: Beyond the Colonial Legacy , 104 Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gardinier , David E. “ ‘Gabon: Limited Reform and Regime Survival’ ” . Edited by: Clark and Gardinier . 145 – 61 .
   Google Scholar
• Gailey , Harry A. 1987 . Historical Dictionary of the Gambia , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sallah , Tijan . 1990 . ‘Economics and Politics in the Gambia’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 28 ( 4 ) : 621 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Central telligence Agency . 1995 . Map of Guinea , Washington, DC : Central Intelligence Agency .
   Google Scholar
• O'Toole , Thomas . 1985 . Historical Dictionary of Guinea , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kaba , Lansine . 1985 . ‘A New Era Dawns in Guinea’ . Current History , 84 ( 501 ) : 174 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reno , William . 1998 . Warlord Politics and African States , 103 – 4 . Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Riviere , Claude . 1977 . Guinea: The Mobilization of a People , Ithaca , NY : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Forrest , Joshua B. 1992 . Guinea‐Bissau: Power, Conflict and Renewal in a West African Nation , 118 – 21 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lobban , Richard Andrew Jr. and Mendy , Peter Karibe . 1997 . Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea‐Bissau , Lanham , MD : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Crook , Richard C. 1995 . “ ‘Cote d'Ivoire: Multi‐Party Democracy and Political Change; Surviving the Crisis’ ” . In Democracy and Political Change in Sub‐Saharan Africa , Edited by: Wiseman , John A. 11 – 44 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Crook , Richard C. 1997 . ‘Winning Coalitions and Ethno‐Regional Politics: The Failure of the Opposition in the 1990 and 1995 Elections in Cote d'lvoire’ . African Affairs , 96 ( 383 ) : 215 – 12 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods , Dwayne . 1989 . ‘Ethno‐regional Demands, Symbolic and Re‐distributive Politics: Sugar Complexes in the North of the Ivory Coast’ . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 12 ( 4 ) : 469 – 89 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Throup , David and Hornsby , Charles . 1998 . Multi‐Party Politics in Kenya , Oxford : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Bienen , Henry . 1974 . Kenya: The Politics of Participation and Control , 66 – 153 . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fox , Roddy . 1996 . ‘Bleak Future for Multi‐Party Elections in Kenya’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 34 ( 4 ) : 597 – 607 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gertzel , Cherry . 1970 . The Politics of Independent Kenya 1963–8 , Evanston , IL : Northwestern University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Throup , David W. 1987 . “ ‘The Construction and Destruction of the Kenyatta State’ ” . In The Political Economy of Kenya , Edited by: Schatzberg , Michael G. 33 – 74 . New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Steeves , Jeffrey S. 1997 . ‘Re‐Democratization in Kenya: “Unbounded Politics” and the Political Trajectory towards National Elections’ . Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics , 35 ( 3 ) : 27 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widner , Jennifer . 1992 . The Rise of the Party‐State in Kenya: From Harambee! to Nyayo! , Berkeley , CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• United States Department of State . 1990 . Background Notes: Lesotho , Washington, DC : United States Department of State .
   Google Scholar
• Boas , Morten . 1997 . ‘Liberia ‐ the Hellbound Heart? Regime Breakdown and the Deconstruction of Society’ . Alternatives , 22 ( 3 ) : 353 – 80 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis , Stephen . 1995 . ‘Liberia 1989–1994: A Study of Ethnic and Spiritual Violence’ . African Affairs , 94 ( 375 ) : 165 – 97 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konneh , Augustine . 1996 . ‘Citizenship at the Margins: Status, Ambiguity, and the Mandingo of Liberia’ . African Studies Review , 39 ( 2 ) : 141 – 54 .
   Google Scholar
• Allen , Philip M. 1995 . Madagascar: Conflicts of Authority in the Great Island , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kaspin , Deborah . 1995 . ‘The Politics of Ethnicity in Malawi's Democratic Transition’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 33 ( 4 ) : 595 – 620 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imperato , Pascal James . 1989 . Mali: A Search for Direction , 81 – 86 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , Dominique . 1992 . ‘Le Peuple Touareg: Du Silence a l'Autodetermination’ . Revue Beige de Droit International , 25 ( 1 ) : 5 – 29 .
   Google Scholar
• Vengroff , Richard . 1993 . ‘Governance and the Transition to Democracy: Political Parties and the Party System in Mali’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 31 ( 4 ) : 541 – 62 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vengroff , Richard . 1994 . ‘The Impact of the Electoral System on the Transition to Democracy in Africa: The Case of Mali’ . Electoral Studies , 13 ( 1 ) : 29 – 37 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerteiny , Alfred . 1967 . Mauritania , New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Magistro , John V. 1993 . ‘Crossing Over: Transboundary Conflict in the Senegal River Valley’ . Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines , 33 ( 2 ) : 201 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• Pazzanita , Anthony G. 1996 . ‘The Origins and Evolution of Mauritania's Second Republic’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 34 ( 4 ) : 575 – 96 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitz , Jean . 1994 . ‘La Mosaique Mauritanienne’ . Cahiers d'Etudes Africanes , 34 ( 1–3 ) : 489 – 97 .
   Google Scholar
• Bowman , Larry . 1991 . Mauritius: Democracy and Development in the Indian Ocean , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Eriksen , Thomas Hylland . 1998 . Common Denominators: Ethnicity, Nation‐Building and Compromise in Mauritius , Oxford : Berg .
   Google Scholar
• Selvon , Sydney . 1991 . Historical Dictionary of Mauritius , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Manning , Carrie . 1998 . ‘Constructing Opposition in Mozambique: Renamo as a Political Party’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 24 ( 1 ) : 161 – 89 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roesch , Otto . 1992 . ‘RENAMO and the Peasantry in Southern Mozambique’ . Canadian Journal of African Studies , 26 ( 3 ) : 462 – 84 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , K.B. 1992 . ‘Cults of Violence and Counter‐violence in Mozambique’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 19 ( 3 ) : 527 – 82 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods , Geoffrey and Haines , Richard . 1998 . ‘Tentative Steps Towards Multi‐Partism in Mozambique’ . Party Politics , 4 ( 1 ) : 107 – 17 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young , Tom . 1990 . ‘The MNR/RENAMO: External and Internal Dynamics’ . African Affairs , 89 ( 357 ) : 491 – 509 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cliffe , Lionel . 1994 . The Transition to Independence in Namibia , Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Forrest , Joshua B. 1994 . ‘Ethnic‐State Political Relations in post‐Apartheid Namibia’ . Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics , 32 ( 3 ) : 300 – 23 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grotpeter , John J. 1994 . Historical Dictionary of Namibia , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sparks , Donald L. and Green , December . 1992 . Namibia : The Nation after Independence , 131 – 38 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• 1998 . New York Times , 31 May
   Google Scholar
• Gervais , Myriam . “ ‘Niger: Regime Change, Economic Crisis, and Perpetuation of Privilege’ ” . Edited by: Clark and Gardinier . 86 – 108 .
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim , Jibrin . 1994 . ‘Political Exclusion, Democratization, and Dynamics of Ethnicity in Niger’ . Africa Today , 41 ( 3 ) : 15 – 39 .
   Google Scholar
• Young . The Politics of Cultural Pluralism , 274 – 326 . 460 – 74 .
   Google Scholar
• Aborisade , Oladimeji and Mundt , Robert J. 1998 . Politics in Nigeria , 57 – 67 . New York : Longman .
   Google Scholar
• Beckett , Paul A. and Young , Crawford , eds. 1997 . Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria , Rochester , NY : University of Rochester Press .
   Google Scholar
• Diamond , Larry , Kirk‐Greene , Anthony and Oyediran , Ayeleye , eds. 1997 . Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society under Babangida , Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Osaghae , Eghosa E. 1986 . ‘Do Ethnic Minorities Still Exist in Nigeria?’ . Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics , 24 ( 2 ) : 151 – 68 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osaghae , Eghosa E. 1995 . ‘The Ogoni Uprising: Oil Politics, Minority Nationalism, and the Future of the Nigerian State’ . African Affairs , 94 ( 376 ) : 325 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osaghae , Eghosa E. 1998 . Crippled Giant: Nigeria since Independence , London : Hurst .
   Google Scholar
• Udogu , E. Ike . 1994 . ‘The Allurement of Ethnonationalism in Nigerian Politics’ . Journal of Asian and African Studies , 29 ( 3–4 ) : 159 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Destexhe , Alain . 1995 . Rwanda and Genocide in the Twentieth Century , New York : New York University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Klinghoffer , Arthur Jay . 1998 . The International Dimension of Genocide in Rwanda , New York : New York University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Prunier , Gerard . 1995 . The Rwanda Crisis: History of Genocide , New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hodges , Tony and Newitt , Malyn . 1988 . Sao Tome and Principe: From Plantation Colony to Microstate , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Coulon , Christian . 1988 . “ ‘Senegal: The Development and Fragility of a Semi‐democracy’ ” . In Democracy in Developing Countries: Volume 2, Africa , Edited by: Diamond , Larry , Linz , Juan and Lipset , Seymour Martin . 141 – 77 . Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Gellar , Sheldon . 1995 . Senegal: An African Nation Between Islam and the West , second edition , 115 – 19 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Linares , Olga . 1992 . Power, Prayer, and Production: The Jola of the Casamance , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• O'Brien , Donal Cruise . 1998 . ‘The Shadow Politics of Wolofisation’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 36 ( 1 ) : 25 – 46 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vengroff , Richard and Creevey , Lucy . “ ‘Senegal: Evolution of a Quasi Democracy’ ” . Edited by: Clark and Gardinier . 204 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Villalon , Leonardo A. 1995 . Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciplines and Citizens in Fatick , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Benedict , Marion and Benedict , Burton . 1982 . Men, Women, and Money in Seychelles , Berkeley , CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Franda , Marcus . 1982 . The Seychelles: Unquiet Islands , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cartwright , John R. 1970 . Politics in Sierra Leone, 1947–67 , Toronto : University of Toronto Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cartwright , John R. 1978 . Political Leadership in Sierra Leone , London : Croom Helm .
   Google Scholar
• Hayward , Fred M. and Dumbuya , Ahmed R. 1985 . ‘Changing Electoral Patterns in Sierra Leone: The 1982 Single‐Party Elections’ . African Studies Review , 28 ( 4 ) : 62 – 86 .
   Google Scholar
• Kandeh , Jimmy . 1992 . ‘Politicization of Ethnic Identities in Sierra Leone’ . African Studies Review , 35 ( 1 ) : 81 – 99 .
   Google Scholar
• Simpson , Dick . 1972 . “ ‘Ethnic Conflict in Sierra Leone’ ” . In The Politics of Cultural Sub‐Nationalism in Africa , Edited by: Olorunsola , Victor . 153 – 88 . Garden City , NY : Anchor Books .
   Google Scholar
• Hashim , Bettis . 1997 . The Fallen State: Dissonance, Dictatorship, and Death in Somalia , Lanham , MD : University Press of America .
   Google Scholar
• Markakis , John . “ ‘Ethnic Conflict and the State in the Horn of Africa’ ” . Edited by: Fukui and Markakis . 217 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• Menkhaus , Ken . 1998 . ‘Somalia: Political Order in a Stateless Society’ . Current History , 97 ( 619 ) : 220 – 4 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prunier , Gerard . “ ‘Somaliland Goes It Alone’ ” . 225 – 8 . Ibid.
   Google Scholar
• Samatar , Ahmed I. , ed. 1994 . The Somali Challenge , Boulder , CO : Lynne Rienner .
   Google Scholar
• Cherry , Janet . 1994 . ‘Development, Conflict, and the Politics of Ethnicity in South Africa's Transition to Democracy’ . Third World Quarterly , 15 ( 4 ) : 613 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Christopher , A.J. 1995 . ‘Regionalization and Ethnicity in South Africa, 1990–1994’ . Area , 27 ( 1 ) : 1 – 11 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds , Andrew , ed. 1994 . Election ‘94 South Africa: The Campaigns, Results and Future Prospects , Cape Town : David Philip .
   Google Scholar
• South African Institute of Race Relations . 1996 . South Africa Survey 1995/96 , 8 – 18 . Johannesburg : South African Institute of Race Relations .
   Google Scholar
• Markakis . National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa; Edited by: Salih and Markakis . 62 – 85 .
   Google Scholar
• Young . The Politics of Cultural Pluralism 489 – 504 .
   Google Scholar
• Chiriyankandath , James . 1991 . “ ‘The 1986 Elections: Tradition, Ideology, and Ethnicity’ ” . In Sudan After Nimeiri , Edited by: Woodward , Peter . 76 – 91 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Deng , Francis Mading . 1995 . War of Visions: Conflict of Identities , Washington, DC : Brookings Institution .
   Google Scholar
• Morton , John . 1989 . ‘Ethnicity and Politics in Red Sea Province, Sudan’ . African Affairs , 88 ( 350 ) : 63 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voll , John Obert and Voll , Sarah Potts . 1985 . The Sudan: Unity and Diversity in a Multicultural State , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• United States Department of State . 1990 . Background Notes: Swaziland , Washington D.C. : United States Department of State .
   Google Scholar
• Barkan , McHenry , Ofcansky , Yeager , Okema and Young . The Politics of Cultural Pluralism 216 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Gros , Jean‐Germain . “ ‘Leadership and Democratization: The Case of Tanzania’ ” . Edited by: Gross . 97 – 112 .
   Google Scholar
• Kweka , A.N. 1997 . “ ‘The Pemba Factor in the 1995 General Elections’ ” . In The Right to Choose a Leader: Essays on the 1995 Tanzanian Elections , Edited by: Oman , C. K. 128 – 60 . Dar es Salaam : DUP .
   Google Scholar
• Yeager , Rodger . 1989 . Tanzania: An African Experiment , second edition , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Decalo , Samuel . 1996 . Historical Dictionary of Togo , Metuchen , NJ : Scarecrow Press .
   Google Scholar
• Heilbrunn , John R. “ ‘Togo: National Conference and Stalled Reform’ ” . Edited by: Clark and Gardinier . 225 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Young . The Politics of Cultural Pluralism 216 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Gingyera‐Pinycwa , Anthony G. 1989 . “ ‘Is There a “Northern Question”?’ ” . In Conflict Resolution in Uganda , Edited by: Rupeshinge , Kumar . 44 – 64 . London : James Currey .
   Google Scholar
• Kasfir , Nelson . “ ‘Cultural Sub‐Nationalism in Uganda’ ” . Edited by: Olorunsola . 51 – 148 .
   Google Scholar
• Kasfir , Nelson . 1976 . The Shrinking Political Arena: Participation and Ethnicity in African Politics, with a Case Study of Uganda , 91 – 243 . Berkeley , CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rubongoya , Joshua B. 1995 . ‘The Bakonjo‐Baamba and Uganda: Colonial and Postcolonial Integration and Ethnocide’ . Studies in Conflict and Terrorism , 18 ( 1 ) : 75 – 92 .
   Google Scholar
• Baylies , Carolyn and Szeftel , Morris . 1997 . ‘The 1996 Zambian Elections: Still Awaiting Democratic Consolidation’ . Review of African Political Economy , 24 ( 71 ) : 113 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Burdette , Marcia M. 1988 . Zambia: Between Two Worlds , 64 – 77 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gertzel , Cherry , Baylies , Carolyn and Szeftel , Morris , eds. 1984 . The Dynamics of the One‐Party State in Zambia , Manchester : Manchester University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Molteno , Robert . 1974 . “ ‘Cleavage and Conflict in Zambian Politics: A Study in Sectionalism’ ” . In Politics in Zambia , Edited by: Tordoff , William . 62 – 106 . Berkeley , CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rasmussen , Thomas . 1969 . ‘Political Competition and One‐party Dominance in Zambia’ . Journal of Modem African Studies , 7 ( 3 ) : 407 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarritt , James R. 1975 . ‘From Tribalism to Sectionalism?: Political Cleavages in Zambia and Uganda’ . Umoja , 2 ( 2 ) : 1 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Sichone , Owen B. and Simutanyi , Neo R. 1996 . “ ‘The Ethnic and Regional Questions, Ethnic Nationalism and the State in Zambia: The Case of Bulozi, 1964–1994’ ” . In Democracy in Zambia: Challenges for the Third Republic , Edited by: Sichone , Owen and Chikulo , Bornwell . 173 – 96 . Harare : SAPES Books .
   Google Scholar
• van Donge , Jan Kees . “ ‘Zambia: Kaunda and Chiluba, Enduring Patterns of Political Culture’ ” . Edited by: Wiseman . 193 – 219 .
   Google Scholar
• van Donge , Jan Kees . 1998 . ‘Reflections on Donors, Opposition and Popular Will in the 1996 Zambian General Elections’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 36 ( 1 ) : 71 – 99 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day , John . 1980 . ‘The Insignificance of Tribe in the African Politics of Zimbabwe Rhodesia’ . Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics , 18 ( 1 ) : 86 – 109 .
   Google Scholar
• Gregory , Martin . 1981 . ‘Zimbabwe 1980: Politicisation through Armed Struggle and Electoral Mobilization’ . Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics , 19 ( 1 ) : 62 – 94 .
   Google Scholar
• Lemon , Anthony . 1988 . ‘The Zimbabwe General Election of 1985’ . Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics , 26 ( 1 ) : 3 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mombeshora , Solomon . 1990 . ‘The Salience of Ethnicity in Political Development: The Case of Zimbabwe’ . International Sociology , 5 ( 4 ) : 427 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rich , Tony . 1982 . ‘Legacies of the Past?: The Results of the 1980 Election in Midlands Province, Zimbabwe’ . Africa , 52 ( 3 ) : 42 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sithole , Masipula . 1980 . Zimbabwe Struggles Within the Struggle , Salisbury : Rujeko Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Sithole , Masipula . “ ‘Zimbabwe: In Search of a Stable Democracy’ ” . Edited by: Diamond , Linz and Lipset . 217 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Sylvester , Christine . 1991 . Zimbabwe: The Terrain of Contradictory Development , 70 – 95 . 137 – 43 . Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sylvester , Christine . 1995 . ‘Whither Opposition in Zimbabwe?’ . Journal of Modern African Studies , 33 ( 3 ) : 403 – 23 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar