Investigational small molecules in phase II clinical trials for the treatment of epilepsy

References

• Ngugi AK, Bottomley C, Kleinschmidt I, et al. Estimation of the burden of active and life-time epilepsy: a meta-analytic approach. Epilepsia. 2010; 51(2010):883–890.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Santhosh NS, Sinha S, Satishchandra P. Epilepsy: indian perspective. Ann Indian Acad Neurol. 2014;17:S3–S11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher RS, Cross JH, French JA, et al. Operational classification of seizure types by the international league against epilepsy: position paper of the ILAE commission for classification and terminology. Epilepsia. 2017;58(4):522–530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banerjee PN, Filippi D, Hauser WA. The descriptive epidemiology of epilepsy—a review. Epilepsy Res. 2009;85(1):31–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Younus I, Samba Reddy D. A resurging boom in new drugs for epilepsy and brain disorders. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2018;11(1):27–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Younus I, Reddy DS. Epigenetic interventions for epileptogenesis: a new frontier for curing epilepsy. Pharmacol Ther. 2017;177:108–122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollard JR, French J. Antiepileptic drugs in development. Lancet Neurol. 2006;5:1064–1067.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonato M, French JA, Galanopoulou AS. Issues for new antiepilepsy drug development. Curr Opin Neurol. 2013;26:195–200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samanen J. "Similarities and differences in the discovery and use of biopharmaceuticals and small-molecule chemotherapeutics". . Introduction to biological and small molecule drug research and development. Elsevier; 2013. p. 161–203.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg EC, Tsien RW, Whalley BJ, et al. Cannabinoids and Epilepsy. Neurotherapeutics. 2015;12:747–768.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg EC, Patra PH, Whalley BJ. Therapeutic effects of cannabinoids in animal models of seizures, epilepsy, epileptogenesis, and epilepsy-related neuroprotection. Epilepsy Behav. 2017;70:319–327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill AJ, Mercier MS, Hill TD, et al. Cannabidivarin is anticonvulsant in mouse and rat. Brit J Pharmacol. 2012;167(8):1629–1642.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill TD, Cascio MG, Romano B, et al. Cannabidivarin-rich cannabis extracts are anticonvulsant in mouse and rat via a CB1 receptor-independent mechanism. Br J Pharmacol. 2013;170(3):679–692.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amada N, Yamasaki Y, Williams CM, et al. Cannabidivarin (CBDV) suppresses pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced increases in epilepsyrelated gene expression. Peer J. 2013;1:e214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Console-Bram L, Marcu J, Abood ME. Cannabinoid receptors: nomenclature and pharmacological principles. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2012;38(1):4–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pertwee RG, Howlett AC, Abood ME, et al. International union of basic and clinical pharmacology. LXXIX. Cannabinoid receptors and their ligands: beyond CB and CB. Pharmacol Rev. 2010;62(4):588–631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthaler S, Pöhn B, Kolmanz C, et al. Differences in receptor binding affinity of several phytocannabinoids do not explain their effects on neural cell cultures. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2014;46:49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iannotti FA, Hill CL, Leo A, et al. Nonpsychotropic plant cannabinoids, cannabidivarin (CBDV) and cannabidiol (CBD), activate and desensitize transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channels in vitro: potential for the treatment of neuronal hyperexcitability. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2014;5:1131–1141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Caro C, Leo A, Citraro R, et al. The potential role of cannabinoids in epilepsy treatment. Expert Rev Neurother. 2017 Nov;17(11):1069–1079.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Petrocellis L, Ligresti A, Moriello AS, et al. Effects of cannabinoids and cannabinoidenriched Cannabis extracts on TRP channels and endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes. Br J Pharmacol. 2011;163:1479–1494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andres-Mach M, Zagaja M, Haratym-Maj A, et al. A long-term treatment with arachidonyl-2ʹ-chloroethylamide combined with valproate increases neurogenesis in a mouse pilocarpine model of epilepsy. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaston TE, Friedman D. Pharmacology of cannabinoids in the treatment of epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2017;70(Pt B):313–318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialer M, Johannessen SI, Levy RH, et al. Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: A summary of the thirteenth eilat conference on new antiepileptic drugs and devices (EILAT XIII). Epilepsia. 2017;58(2):181–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shu HF, Yu SX, Zhang CQ, et al. Expression of TRPV1 in cortical lesions from patients with tuberous sclerosis complex and focal cortical dysplasia type IIb. Brain Dev. 2013;35:252–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall W, Solowij N. Adverse effects of cannabis. Lancet. 1998;352:1611–1616.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman D, Devinsky O. Cannabinoids in the treatment of epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:94–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith PF. Cannabinoids as potential anti-epileptic drugs. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2005;6(7):680–685.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• A study of GWP42006 in people with focal seizures - part a - full text view - clinicaltrials.gov [internet]. [cited 2018 Јan 28]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02369471.
   Google Scholar
• A study of GWP42006 in people with focal seizures - part b - full text view - clinicaltrials.gov [internet]. [cited 2018 Јan 28]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02365610.
   Google Scholar
• Morano A, Cifelli P, Nencini P, et al. Cannabis in epilepsy: from clinical practice to basic research focusing on the possible role of cannabidivarin. Epilepsia Open. 2016;1(3–4):145–151.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ružić Zečević D, Folić M, Tantoush Z, et al. Investigational cannabinoids in seizure disorders, what have we learned thus far? Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2018 Jun;27(6):535–541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Citraro R, Aiello R, Franco V, et al. Targeting α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate receptors in epilepsy. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2014;18:319–334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalia LV, Kalia SK, Salter MW, et al. NMDA receptors in clinical neurology: excitatory times ahead. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7:742–755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo E, Gitto R, Citraro R, et al. New AMPA antagonists in epilepsy. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2012;21:1371–1389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auberson YP, BGG492, a competitive AMPA/kainate antagonist in clinical development for the treatment of migraine and epilepsy [abstract]. Presented at the European Federation for Medicinal Chemistry, 21st International Symposium on Medicinal Chemistry; 2010 Sep 5-9; Brussels, Belgium.
   Google Scholar
• Faught E. BGG492 (selurampanel), an AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist drug for epilepsy. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2014;23:107–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elger CE, Hong SB, Brandt C, et al. BGG492 as an adjunctive treatment in patients with partial-onset seizures: A 12-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase II dose-titration study with an open-label extension. Epilepsia. 2017 July;58(7):1217–1226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenitè D, Brandt C, Mayer T, et al. Dose-dependent suppression of human photoparoxysmal response with the competitive AMPA/kainate recepto antagonist BGG492: clear PK/PD relationship. Epilepsia. 2015;56:924–932.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaccara G, Schmidt D. Do traditional anti-seizure drugs have a future? A review of potential anti-seizure drugs in clinical development. Pharmacol Res. 2016 Feb;104:38–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogawski MA. AMPA receptors as a molecular target in epilepsy therapy. Acta Neurol Scand. 2013;127(Suppl 197):9–18.
   Google Scholar
• Mula M. Emerging drugs for focal epilepsy. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2013;18(1):87–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomita S, Adesnik H, Sekiguchi M, et al. Stargazin modulates AMPA gating and trafficking by distinct domains. Nature. 2005;435(7045):1052–1058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Binnie CD, Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenite DG, De Korte R. Photosensitivity as a model for acute antiepileptic drug studies. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1986;63:35–41.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenite DG, Marescaux C, Stodieck S, et al. Photosensitive epilepsy: a model to study the effects of antiepileptic drugs. Evaluation of the piracetam analogue, levetiracetam. Epilepsy Res. 1996;25:225–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuen ES, Sims JR. How predictive are photosensitive epilepsy models as proof of principle trials for epilepsy. Seizure. 2014;23:490–493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BGG492. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov [cited 2015 Aug 27].
   Google Scholar
• Efficacy and Safety of BGG492 as Adjunctive Treatment in Patients With Partial Onset Seizures, Novartis. NIH/National Library of Medicine, 2013 [cited 2015 Mar 23]. ( Avaiable from: http://clinicaltrials.gov.
   Google Scholar
• Kaur H, Kumar B, Medhi B. Antiepileptic drugs in development pipeline: A recent update. eNeurologicalSci. 2016;4:42–51.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hanada T, Hashizume Y, Tokuhara N, et al. Perampanel: a novel, orally active, noncompetitive AMPA-receptor antagonist that reduces seizure activity in rodent models of epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2011; 52(2011):1331–1340.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koller M, Lingenhoehl K, Schmutz M, et al. Quinazolinedione sulfonamides: a novel class of competitive AMPA receptor antagonists with oral activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 21.11(2011);3358–3361.
   Google Scholar
• Reddy DS, Woodward R. Ganaxolone: a prospective overview. Drugs Future. 2004;29:227–242.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Sarro G, Gitto R, Russo E, et al. AMPA receptor antagonists as potential anticonvulsant drugs. Curr Top Med Chem. 2005;5:31–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawato S, Yamada M, Kimoto T. Brain neurosteroids are 4th generation neuromessengers in the brain: cell biophysical analysis of steroid signal transduction. Adv Biophys. 2003;37:1–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carver CM, Reddy DS. Neurosteroid interactions with synaptic and extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors: regulation of subunit plasticity, phasic and tonic inhibition, and neuronal network excitability. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2013 Nov;230(2):151–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biaginia G, Panuccio G, Avoli M. Neurosteroids and epilepsy. Curr Opin Neurol. 2010 April;23(2):170–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gasior M, Ungard JT, Beekman M, et al. Acute and chronic effects of the synthetic neuroactive steroid, ganaxolone, against the convulsive and lethal effects of pentylenetetrazol in seizure-kindled mice: comparison with diazepam and valproate. Neuropharmacology. 2000;39(7):1184–1196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy DS, Rogawski MA. Ganaxolone suppression of behavioural and electrographic seizures in the mouse amygdala kindling model. Epilepsy Res. 2010;89(2):254–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacher M, Mattern C, Ghoumari A, et al. Revisiting the roles of progesterone and allopregnanolone in the nervous system: resurgence of the progesterone receptors. Prog Neurobiol. 2014;113:6—39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy DS, Rogawski MA. Chronic treatment with the neuroactive steroid ganaxolone in the rat induces anticonvulsant tolerance to diazepam but not to itself. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2000;295:1241—1248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosie AD, Wilkins ME, Da Silva HMA, et al. Endogenous neurosteroids regulate GABAA receptors through two discrete transmembrane sites. Nature. 2006;444:486—489.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter RB, Wood PL, Wieland S, et al. Characterization of the anticonvulsant properties of ganaxolone (CCD 1042;3 hydroxy-3 _-methyl-5 _-pregnan-20-one), a selective, high-affinity, steroid modulator of the _-aminobutyric acid Areceptor. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1997;280:1284—1295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Citraro R, Russo E, Di Paola ED, et al. Effects of some neurosteroids injected into some brain areas of WAG/Rij rats, an animal model of generalized absence epilepsy. Neuropharmacology. 2006;50:1059–1071.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lozano R, Hare EB, Hagerman RJ. Modulation of the GABAergic pathway for the treatment of fragile X syndrome. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2014;10:1769–1779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy DS, Rogawski MA. Neurosteroids – endogenous regulators of seizure susceptibility and role in the treatment of epilepsy. In: Noebels JL, Avoli M, Rogawski MA, et al., editors. Jasper’s basic mechanisms of the epilepsies. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012. p.984–1002.
   Google Scholar
• Pieribone VA, Tsai J, Soufflet C, et al. Clinical evaluation of ganaxolone in pediatric and adolescent patients with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2007 Oct;48(10):1870–1874.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monaghan EP, Navalta LA, Shum L, et al. Initial human experience with ganaxolone, a neuroactive steroid with antiepileptic activity. Epilepsia. 1997 Sep;38(9):1026–1031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerrigan JF, Shields WD, Nelson TY, et al. Ganaxolone for treating intractable infantile spasms: a multicenter, open-label, add-on trial. Epilepsy Res. 2000 Dec;42(2–3):133–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabbout R. A risk-benefit assessment of treatments for infantile spasms. Drug Saf. 2001;24(11):813–828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laxer K, Blum D, Abou-Khalil BW, et al. Assessment of ganaxolone’s anticonvulsant activity using a randomized, double-blind, presurgical trial design. Ganaxolone presurgical study group. Epilepsia. 2000 Sep;41(9):1187–1194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yawno T, Miller SL, Bennet L, et al. Ganaxolone: A new treatment for neonatal seizures. Front Cell Neurosci. 2017 Aug 22;11:246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yum MS, Lee M, Ko TS, et al. A potential effect of ganaxolone in an animal model of infantile spasms. Epilepsy Res. 2014 Nov;108(9):1492–1500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mares P, Stehlíková M. Anticonvulsant doses of ganaxolone do not compromise motor performance in immature rats. Neurosci Lett. 2010 Jan 29;469(3):396–399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sperling MR, Klein P, Tsai J. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 study of ganaxolone as add-on therapy in adults with uncontrolled partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia. 2017 Apr;58(4):558–564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar