513
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Experimental drugs for the inhibition of preterm labor

, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 507-523 | Received 07 Jan 2020, Accepted 03 Apr 2020, Published online: 29 Apr 2020

References

  • March of Dimes P, Save the Children, WHO. Born Too Soon: the Global Action Report on Preterm Birth. Geneva: WHO; 2012.
  • Harrison MS, Goldenberg RL. Global burden of prematurity. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;21(2):74–79.
  • Romero R, Dey S, Fisher SJ. Preterm labor: one syndrome, many causes. Science. 2014;345(6198):760–765.
  • Keelan JA. Pharmacological inhibition of inflammatory pathways for the prevention of preterm birth. J Reprod Immunol. 2011;88(2):176–184.
  • Ng P, Ireland D, Keelan J. Drugs to block cytokine signaling for the prevention and treatment of inflammation induced preterm birth. Front Immunol. 2015;6(166). DOI:10.3389/fimmu.2015.00166
  • Rinaldi SF, Hutchinson JL, Rossi AG, et al. Anti-inflammatory mediators as physiological and pharmacological regulators of parturition. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2011;7(5):675–696.
  • Lappas M, Permezel M, Rice GE. Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Proteins Regulate LPS-Stimulated Release of Pro-inflammatory Cytokines and Prostaglandins from Human Gestational Tissues. Placenta. 2007;28(8–9):936–945.
  • Menon R, Fortunato SJ. The Role of Matrix Degrading Enzymes and Apoptosis in Rupture of Membranes. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2004. p. 427–437.
  • Grace YC, Gabriel N. Sterile inflammation: sensing and reacting to damage. Nat Rev Immunol. 2010;10(12):826.
  • Gomez‐Lopez N, Romero R, Plazyo O, et al. Intra‐Amniotic Administration of HMGB1 Induces Spontaneous Preterm Labor and Birth. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2016;75(1):3–7.
  • Boyle AK, Rinaldi SF, Norman JE, et al. Preterm birth: inflammation, fetal injury and treatment strategies. J Reprod Immunol. 2017;119:62–66.
  • Flenady V, Wojcieszek AM, Papatsonis DNM, et al. Calcium channel blockers for inhibiting preterm labour and birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;6:CD002255.
  • Neilson JP, West HM, Dowswell T. Betamimetics for inhibiting preterm labour. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014;2:CD004352
  • Reinebrant HE, Pileggi‐Castro C, Romero CLT, et al. Cyclo‐oxygenase (COX) inhibitors for treating preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;6:CD001992.
  • Hendricks SK, Smith JR, Moore DE, et al. Oligohydramnios associated with prostaglandin synthetase inhibitors in preterm labour. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1990;97(4):312–316.
  • Norton ME, Merrill J, Cooper BA, et al. Neonatal complications after the administration of indomethacin for preterm labor. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(22):1602–1607.
  • Hammers AL, Sanchez-Ramos L, Kaunitz AM. Antenatal exposure to indomethacin increases the risk of severe intraventricular hemorrhage, necrotizing enterocolitis, and periventricular leukomalacia: a systematic review with metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;212(4):505.e1-13.
  • Luo G, Abrahams VM, Tadesse S, et al. Progesterone inhibits basal and TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis in fetal membranes: a novel mechanism to explain progesterone-mediated prevention of preterm birth. Reprod Sci. 2010;17(6):532–539.
  • Kumar D, Springel E, Moore RM, et al. Progesterone inhibits in vitro fetal membrane weakening. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;213(4):520.e1-9.
  • Meis PJ, Klebanoff M, Thom E, et al. Prevention of Recurrent Preterm Delivery by 17 Alpha-Hydroxyprogesterone Caproate. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(24):2379–2385.
  • Spong CY, Meis PJ, Thom EA, et al. Progesterone for prevention of recurrent preterm birth: impact of gestational age at previous delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193(3, Supplement):1127–1131.
  • Da Fonseca EB, Bittar RE, Carvalho MHB, et al. Prophylactic administration of progesterone by vaginal suppository to reduce the incidence of spontaneous preterm birth in women at increased risk: A randomized placebo-controlled double-blind study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188(2):419–424.
  • Dodd JM, Jones L, Flenady V, et al. Prenatal administration of progesterone for preventing preterm birth in women considered to be at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;7:Cd004947.
  • Norman JE, Marlow N, Messow CM, et al. Vaginal progesterone prophylaxis for preterm birth (the OPPTIMUM study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet. 2016;387(10033):2106–2116.
  • Crowther CA, Ashwood P, McPhee AJ, et al. Vaginal progesterone pessaries for pregnant women with a previous preterm birth to prevent neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (the PROGRESS Study): A multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. PLoS Med. 2017;14(9):e1002390.
  • Romero R, Conde-Agudelo A, Da Fonseca E, et al. Vaginal progesterone for preventing preterm birth and adverse perinatal outcomes in singleton gestations with a short cervix: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2018;218(2):161–180.
  • Gonzalez JM, Xu H, Ofori E, et al. Toll-like receptors in the uterus, cervix, and placenta: is pregnancy an immunosuppressed state? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;197(3):296.e1-.e6.
  • Sheldon IM, Roberts MH, Receptor T-L. 4 Mediates the Response of Epithelial and Stromal Cells to Lipopolysaccharide in the Endometrium (TLR4 in the Endometrium). PLoS ONE. 2010;5(9):e12906.
  • Moço NP, Martin LF, Pereira AC, et al. Gene expression and protein localization of TLR-1, −2, −4 and −6 in amniochorion membranes of pregnancies complicated by histologic chorioamnionitis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2013;171(1):12–17.
  • Wahid HH, Dorian CL, Chin PY, et al. Toll-Like Receptor 4 Is an Essential Upstream Regulator of On-Time Parturition and Perinatal Viability in Mice. Endocrinology. 2015;156(10):3828–3841.
  • Li L, Kang J, Lei W. Role of Toll-like receptor 4 in inflammation-induced preterm delivery. Mol Hum Reprod. 2010;16(4):267–272.
  • Liu H, Redline R, Han Y. Fusobacterium nucleatum Induces Fetal Death in Mice via Stimulation of TLR4-Mediated Placental Inflammatory Response. J Immunol. 2007;179(4):2501–2508.
  • Adams Waldorf KM, Persing D, Novy MJ, et al. Pretreatment With Toll-like Receptor 4 Antagonist Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Preterm Uterine Contractility, Cytokines, and Prostaglandins in Rhesus Monkeys. Reprod Sci. 2008;15(2):121–127.
  • Hutchinson MR, Zhang Y, Brown K, et al. Non‐stereoselective reversal of neuropathic pain by naloxone and naltrexone: involvement of toll‐like receptor 4 (TLR4. Eur J Neurosci. 2008;28(1):20–29.
  • Chin P, Dorian C, Hutchinson M, et al. Novel Toll-like receptor-4 antagonist (+)-naloxone protects mice from inflammation-induced preterm birth. Sci Rep. 2016;6(6):36112.
  • Ireland DJ, Kemp MW, Miura Y, et al. Intra-amniotic pharmacological blockade of inflammatory signalling pathways in an ovine chorioamnionitis model. Mol Hum Reprod. 2015;21(5):479–489.
  • Ireland DJ, Nathan EA, Li S, et al. Preclinical evaluation of drugs to block inflammation-driven preterm birth. Innate Immun. 2017;23(1):20–33.
  • Sullivan MHF, Alvi SA, Brown NL, et al. The effects of a cytokine suppressive anti-inflammatory drug on the output of prostaglandin E 2 and interleukin-1 from human fetal membranes. Mol Hum Reprod. 2002;8(3):281–285.
  • Shoji T, Yoshida S, Mitsunari M, et al. Involvement of p38 MAP kinase in lipopolysaccharide-induced production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and prostaglandin E 2 in human choriodecidua. J Reprod Immunol. 2007;75(2):82–90.
  • Stinson LF, Ireland DJ, Kemp MW, et al. Effects of cytokine-suppressive anti-inflammatory drugs on inflammatory activation in ex vivo human and ovine fetal membranes. Reproduction. 2014;147(3):313–320.
  • Vaillancourt C, Lanoix D, Le Bellego F, et al. Involvement of MAPK Signalling in Human Villous Trophoblast Differentiation. Mini Rev Med Chem. 2009;9(8):962–973.
  • Chengxing Z, Jiong Y, Qiaoling P, et al. Hypoxia-inducible factor-2 alpha promotes the proliferation of human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells through the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):1–13.
  • LaMarca HL, Dash PR, Vishnuthevan K, et al. Epidermal growth factor-stimulated extravillous cytotrophoblast motility is mediated by the activation of PI3-K, Akt and both p38 and p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinases. Hum Reprod. 2008;23(8):1733–1741.
  • De Silva D, Mitchell M, Keelan J. Inhibition of choriodecidual cytokine production and inflammatory gene expression by selective I‐κB kinase (IKK) inhibitors. Br J Pharmacol. 2010;160(7):1808–1822.
  • Toda A, Sawada K, Fujikawa T, et al. Targeting Inhibitor of κB Kinase β Prevents Inflammation-Induced Preterm Delivery by Inhibiting IL-6 Production from Amniotic Cells. Am J Pathol. 2016;186(3):616–629.
  • Keelan J, Khan S, Yosaatmadja F, et al. Prevention of Inflammatory Activation of Human Gestational Membranes in an Ex Vivo Model Using a Pharmacological NF-kappa B Inhibitor. J Immunol. 2009;183(8):5270–5278.
  • Lappas EM, Permezel EM, Rice EG. N-Acetyl-Cysteine Inhibits Phospholipid Metabolism, Proinflammatory Cytokine Release, Protease Activity, and Nuclear Factor-κB Deoxyribonucleic Acid-Binding Activity in Human Fetal Membranes in Vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(4):1723–1729.
  • Beloosesky R, Gayle DA, Ross MG. Maternal N-acetylcysteine suppresses fetal inflammatory cytokine responses to maternal lipopolysaccharide. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195(4):1053–1057.
  • Beloosesky R, Weiner Z, Khativ N, et al. Prophylactic maternal n-acetylcysteine before lipopolysaccharide suppresses fetal inflammatory cytokine responses. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009;200(6):665.e1-.e5.
  • Awad N, Khatib N, Ginsberg Y, et al. N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) attenuates LPS-induced maternal and amniotic fluid oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in the preterm gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011;204(5):450.e15-450.e20.
  • Buhimschi IA, Buhimschi CS, Weiner CP. Protective effect of N-acetylcysteine against fetal death and preterm labor induced by maternal inflammation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188(1):203–208.
  • Chang EY, Zhang J, Sullivan S, et al. N-acetylcysteine prevents preterm birth by attenuating the LPS-induced expression of contractile associated proteins in an animal model. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012;25(11):2395–2400.
  • Chang EY, Zhang J, Sullivan S, et al. N-acetylcysteine attenuates the maternal and fetal proinflammatory response to intrauterine LPS injection in an animal model for preterm birth and brain injury. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2011;24(5):732–740.
  • Sharabi H, Khatib N, Ginsberg Y, et al. Therapeutic N-Acetyl-Cysteine (Nac) Following Initiation of Maternal Inflammation Attenuates Long-Term Offspring Cerebral Injury, as Evident in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Neuroscience. 2019;403:118–124.
  • Shahin AY, Hassanin IMA, Ismail AM, et al. Effect of oral N‐acetyl cysteine on recurrent preterm labor following treatment for bacterial vaginosis. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2009;104(1):44–48.
  • Jenkins DD, Wiest DB, Mulvihill DM, et al. Fetal and Neonatal Effects of N-Acetylcysteine When Used for Neuroprotection in Maternal Chorioamnionitis. J Pediatr. 2016;168(67–76.e6). DOI:10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.09.076.
  • McElhatton PR, Sullivan FM, Volans GN, et al. Paracetamol Poisoning in Pregnancy: an Analysis of the Outcomes of Cases Referred to the Teratology Information Service of the National Poisons Information Service. Hum Exp Toxicol. 1990;9(3):147–153.
  • Østensen M, Förger F. How safe are anti-rheumatic drugs during pregnancy? Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013;13(3):470–475.
  • Rahimi R, Nikfar S, Rezaie A, et al. Pregnancy outcome in women with inflammatory bowel disease following exposure to 5-aminosalicylic acid drugs: A meta-analysis. Reprod Toxicol. 2008;25(2):271–275.
  • Nath CA, Ananth CV, Smulian JC, et al. ORIGINAL ARTICLE: can Sulfasalazine Prevent Infection-Mediated Pre-Term Birth in a Murine Model? Am J Reprod Immunol. 2010;63(2):144–149.
  • Lappas M, Permezel M, Georgiou HM, et al. Nuclear factor kappa B regulation of proinflammatory cytokines in human gestational tissues in vitro. Biol Reprod. 2002;67(2):668–673.
  • Peltier MR, Tee SC, Kinzler WL, et al. ORIGINAL ARTICLE: effect of Sulfasalazine on Basal and Bacteria‐Stimulated Interleukin‐8 Production by Endocervical Epithelial Cells. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2009;61(3):190–195.
  • Romero R, Espinoza J, Goncalves LF, et al. The role of inflammation and infection in preterm birth. Semin Reprod Med. 2007;25(1):21–39.
  • Sadowsky DW, Adams KM, Gravett MG, et al. Preterm labor is induced by intraamniotic infusions of interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α but not by interleukin-6 or interleukin-8 in a nonhuman primate model. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195(6):1578–1589.
  • Burdet J, Sacerdoti F, Cella M, et al. Role of TNF-α in the mechanisms responsible for preterm delivery induced by Stx2 in rats. Br J Pharmacol. 2013;168(4):946–953.
  • Holmgren C, Esplin MS, Hamblin S, et al. Evaluation of the use of anti-TNF-α in an LPS-induced murine model. J Reprod Immunol. 2008;78(2):134–139.
  • Fidel PL, Romero R, Cutright J, et al. Treatment With the Interleukin-1 Receptor Antagonist and Soluble Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Fc Fusion Protein Does Not Prevent Endotoxin-Induced Preterm Parturition in Mice. J Soc Gynecologic Invest. 1997;4(1):22–26.
  • Mourabet M, El-Hachem S, Harrison J, et al. Anti-TNF Antibody Therapy for Inflammatory Bowel Disease During Pregnancy: A Clinical Review. Curr Drug Targets. 2010;11(2):234–241.
  • Djokanovic N, Klieger-Grossmann C, Pupco A, et al. Safety of infliximab use during pregnancy. Reprod Toxicol. 2011;32(1):93–97.
  • Nadeau-Vallée M, Quiniou C, Palacios J, et al. Novel Noncompetitive IL-1 Receptor-Biased Ligand Prevents Infection- and Inflammation-Induced Preterm Birth. J Immunol. 2015;195(7):3402–3415.
  • Quiniou C, Sapieha P, Lahaie I, et al. Development of a novel noncompetitive antagonist of IL-1 receptor. J Immunol. 2008;180(10):6977.
  • Nadeau-Vallée M, Chin P-Y, Belarbi L, et al. Antenatal Suppression of IL-1 Protects against Inflammation-Induced Fetal Injury and Improves Neonatal and Developmental Outcomes in Mice. J Immunol. 2017;198(5):2047.
  • Girardi G. Can statins prevent pregnancy complications? J Reprod Immunol. 2014;101-102(1):161–167.
  • Zarek J, Koren G. The Fetal Safety of Statins: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Obstet Gynaecology Canada. 2014;36(6):506–509.
  • Karalis DG, Hill AN, Clifton S, et al. The risks of statin use in pregnancy: A systematic review. J Clin Lipidol. 2016;10(5):1081–1090.
  • Basraon SK, Menon R, Makhlouf M, et al. Can statins reduce the inflammatory response associated with preterm birth in an animal model? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2012;207(3):224.e1-.e7.
  • Basraon SK, Costantine MM, Saade G, et al. The Effect of Simvastatin on Infection‐Induced Inflammatory Response of Human Fetal Membranes. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2015;74(1):54–61.
  • Gonzalez JM, Pedroni SMA, Girardi G. Statins prevent cervical remodeling, myometrial contractions and preterm labor through a mechanism that involves hemoxygenase-1 and complement inhibition. Mol Hum Reprod. 2014;20(6):579–589.
  • Boyle AK, Rinaldi SF, Rossi AG, et al. Repurposing simvastatin as a therapy for preterm labor: evidence from preclinical models. Faseb J. 2019;33(2):2743–2758.
  • Leghi GE, Muhlhausler BS. The effect of n-3 LCPUFA supplementation on oxidative stress and inflammation in the placenta and maternal plasma during pregnancy. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids (PLEFA). 2016;113:33–39.
  • Taguchi A, Yamashita A, Kawana K, et al. Recent Progress in Therapeutics for Inflammation-Associated Preterm Birth: A Review. Reprod Sci. 2017;24(1):7–18.
  • Schebb NH, Ostermann AI, Yang J, et al. Comparison of the effects of long-chain omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on plasma levels of free and esterified oxylipins. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediators. 2014;113-115:21–29.
  • Brazle A, Johnson B, Webel S, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids in the gravid pig uterus as affected by maternal supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids1. J Anim Sci. 2009;87(3):994–1002.
  • Zhou SJ, Best K, Gibson R, et al. Study protocol for a randomised controlled trial evaluating the effect of prenatal omega-3 LCPUFA supplementation to reduce the incidence of preterm birth: the ORIP trial. BMJ Open. 2017;7(9):e018360.
  • Middleton P, Gomersall JC, Gould JF, et al. Omega‐3 fatty acid addition during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;11:CD003402.
  • Makrides M, Best K, Yelland L, et al. A Randomized Trial of Prenatal n−3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Preterm Delivery. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(11):1035–1045.
  • Serhan CN, Chiang N. Resolution phase lipid mediators of inflammation: agonists of resolution. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013;13:632–640.
  • Elliott E, Hanson CK, Anderson-Berry AL, et al. The role of specialized pro-resolving mediators in maternal-fetal health. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes Essent Fatty Acids. 2017;126:98–104.
  • Keelan JA, Mas E, D’Vaz N, et al. Effects of maternal n-3 fatty acid supplementation on placental cytokines, pro-resolving lipid mediators and their precursors. Reproduction. 2015;149(2):171–178.
  • Aki Y, Kei K, Kensuke T, et al. Increased tissue levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids prevents pathological preterm birth. Sci Rep. 2013;3(1):1–7.
  • Chandrasekharan JA, Sharma-Walia N. Lipoxins: nature’s way to resolve inflammation. J Inflamm Res. 2015;8:181–192.
  • Rinaldi SF, Catalano RD, Wade J, et al. 15-epi-lipoxin A 4 reduces the mortality of prematurely born pups in a mouse model of infection-induced preterm birth. Mol Hum Reprod. 2015;21(4):359–368.
  • Maldonado-Pérez D, Golightly E, Denison FC, et al. A role for lipoxin A4 as anti-inflammatory and proresolution mediator in human parturition. Faseb J. 2011;25(2):569.
  • Borra M, Smith B, Denu J. Mechanism of human SIRT1 activation by resveratrol. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(17):17187–17195.
  • Lappas M, Mitton A, Lim R, et al. SIRT1 Is a Novel Regulator of Key Pathways of Human Labor 1. Biol Reprod. 2010;84(1):167–178.
  • Manna SK, A M, Aggarwal BB. Resveratrol suppresses TNF-induced activation of nuclear transcription factors NF-kappa B, activator protein-1, and apoptosis: potential role of reactive oxygen intermediates and lipid peroxidation. J Immunol. 2000;164(12):6509.
  • Furuya H, Taguchi A, Kawana K, et al. Resveratrol Protects Against Pathological Preterm Birth by Suppression of Macrophage-Mediated Inflammation. Reprod Sci. 2015;22(12):1561–1568.
  • Bariani MV, Correa F, Leishman E, et al. Resveratrol protects from lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in the uterus and prevents experimental preterm birth. Mol Hum Reprod. 2017;23(8):571–581.
  • Novaković R, Radunović N, Marković-Lipkovski J, et al. Effects of the polyphenol resveratrol on contractility of human term pregnant myometrium. Mol Hum Reprod. 2015;21(6):545–551.
  • Roberts VHJ, Pound LD, Thorn SR, et al. Beneficial and cautionary outcomes of resveratrol supplementation in pregnant nonhuman primates. Faseb J. 2014;28(6):2466–2477.
  • Agarwal R, Agarwal C, Ichikawa H, et al. Anticancer potential of silymarin: from bench to bed side. Anticancer Res. 2006;26(6B):4457–4498.
  • Abenavoli L, Capasso R, Milic N, et al. Milk thistle in liver diseases: past, present, future. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.; 2010. p. 1423–1432.
  • Bremner P, Heinrich M. Natural products as targeted modulators of the nuclear factor-KB pathway. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2002;54(4):453–472.
  • Cristofalo R, Bannwart-Castro CF, Magalhães CG, et al. Silibinin attenuates oxidative metabolism and cytokine production by monocytes from preeclamptic women. Free Radic Res. 2013;47(4):268–275.
  • Giorgi VSI, Peracoli MTS, Peracoli JC, et al. Silibinin modulates the NF-κb pathway and pro-inflammatory cytokine production by mononuclear cells from preeclamptic women. J Reprod Immunol. 2012;95(1):67–72.
  • Ratana L, Carrington JM, Gillian B, et al. Effect of silibinin in reducing inflammatory pathways in in vitro and in vivo models of infection-induced preterm birth. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(3):e92505.
  • Sarah AR, Hanan HW, Peck Yin C, et al. Toll-like Receptor-4: A New Target for Preterm Labour Pharmacotherapies? Curr Pharm Des. 2018;24(9):960–973.
  • Professor Jeff Keelan Preventing Preterm Birth and Improving Infant Outcomes. Scientia. 21 September 2017; 92–95.
  • Preclinical evaluation of a novel allosteric IL-1R inhibitor (rytvela) for the prevention of perinatal inflammation-induced fetal injury [2018-2021] [cited 2020 Jan 1]. http://purl.org/au-research/grants/nhmrc/1145295
  • Loiselle S-E, Zanre N, Hou X. MN-VCQSRDOSC. P02: optimal dose and time of administration of Rytvela for prevention of inflammation‐induced preterm birth and fetal tissue injury. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2019;81(S1):39–40.
  • Whyte S A feasibility study investigating pravastatin for the prevention of preterm birth in women. 2018 [cited 2020 Jan 1]. https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN82984919

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.