Why it is so hard to teach people they can make a difference: climate change efficacy as a non-analytic form of reasoning

References

• Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonio, R. J., & Brulle, R. J. (2011). The unbearable lightness of politics: Climate change denial and political polarization. The Sociological Quarterly, 52(2), 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2011.01199.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122–147. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.H. Freeman.
   Google Scholar
• Benight, C. C., & Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: The role of perceived self-efficacy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(10), 1129–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bieniek-Tobasco, A., Rimal, R. N., McCormick, S., & Harrington, C. B. (2020). The power of being transported: Efficacy beliefs, risk perceptions, and political affiliation in the context of climate change. Science Communication, 42(6), 776–802. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547020951794
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bliuc, A.-M., McGarty, C. A., Thomas, E. F., Lala, G., Berndsen, M., & Misajon, R. (2015). Public division about climate change rooted in conflicting socio-political identities. Nature Climate Change, 5(3), 226–229. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2507
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, G. L., Babutsidze, Z., Chai, A., & Reser, J. P. (2020). The role of climate change risk perception, response efficacy, and psychological adaptation in pro-environmental behavior: A two nation study. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 68, 101410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101410
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaiken, S., & Trope, Y. (1999). Dual-process theories in social psychology. Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, M.-F. (2015). Self-efficacy or collective efficacy within the cognitive theory of stress model: Which more effectively explains people's self-reported proenvironmental behavior? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 42, 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.02.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crosman, K. M., Bostrom, A., & Hayes, A. L. (2019). Efficacy foundations for risk communication: How people think about reducing the risks of climate change. Risk Analysis, 39(10), 2329–2347. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13334
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Vries, G. (2020). Public communication as a tool to implement environmental policies. Social Issues and Policy Review, 14(1), 244–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12061
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, S. (1994). Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious. American Psychologist, 49(8), 709–724. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.49.8.709
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fielding, K. S., Hornsey, M. J., Thai, H. A., & Toh, L. L. (2020). Using ingroup messengers and ingroup values to promote climate change policy. Climatic Change, 158(2), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02561-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fielding, K. S., McDonald, R., & Louis, W. R. (2008). Theory of planned behaviour, identity, and intentions to engage in environmental activism. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(4), 318–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.03.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fritsche, I., Barth, M., Jugert, P., Masson, T., & Reese, G. (2018). A social identity model of pro-environmental action (SIMPEA). Psychological Review, 125(2), 245–269. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000090
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fritsche, I., Jonas, E., Ablasser, C., Beyer, M., Kuban, J., Manger, A., & Schultz, M. (2013). The power of we: Evidence for group-based control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.07.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fritsche, I., Jonas, E., & Kessler, T. (2011). Collective reactions to threat: Implications for intergroup conflict and for solving societal crises. Social Issues and Policy Review, 5(1), 101–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2011.01027.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gifford, R., Kormos, C., & McIntyre, A. (2011). Behavioral dimensions of climate change: drivers, responses, barriers, and interventions. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 2, 801–827.
   Google Scholar
• Greenaway, K. H., Cichocka, A., van Veelen, R., Likki, T., & Branscombe, N. R. (2016). Feeling hopeful inspires support for social change. Political Psychology, 37(1), 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12225
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenaway, K. H., Louis, W. R., Hornsey, M. J., & Jones, J. M. (2014). Perceived control qualifies the effects of threat on prejudice. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 53(3), 422–442. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulliver, R., Chapman, C. M., Solly, K., & Schultz, T. (2020). Testing the impact of images in environmental campaigns. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 71, 101468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101468
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, P. S., & Feldman, L. (2016a). The influence of climate change efficacy messages and efficacy beliefs on intended political participation. PLoS One, 11(8), e0157658. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart, P. S., & Feldman, L. (2016b). The impact of climate change–related imagery and text on public opinion and behavior change. Science Communication, 38(4), 415–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547016655357
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath, Y., & Gifford, R. (2006). Free-market ideology and environmental degradation: The case of belief in global climate change. Environment and Behavior, 38(1), 48–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916505277998
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornsey, M. J. (2008). Social identity theory and self-categorization theory: A historical review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 204–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00066.x
   Google Scholar
• Hornsey, M. J., Chapman, C. M., & Oelrichs, D. M. (2021). Ripple effects: Can information about the collective impact of individual actions boost perceived efficacy about climate change? Manuscript under review.
   Google Scholar
• Hornsey, M. J., & Fielding, K. S. (2016). A cautionary note about messages of hope: Focusing on progress in reducing carbon emissions weakens mitigation motivation. Global Environmental Change, 39, 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.04.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornsey, M. J., Fielding, K. S., McStay, R., Reser, J. P., Bradley, G. L., & Greenaway, K. H. (2015). Evidence for motivated control: Understanding the paradoxical link between threat and efficacy beliefs about climate change. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 42, 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.02.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornsey, M. J., Harris, E. A., & Fielding, K. S. (2018). Relationships among conspiratorial beliefs, conservatism and climate scepticism across nations. Nature Climate Change, 8(7), 614–620. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0157-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jugert, P., Greenaway, K., Barth, M., Büchner, R., Eisentraut, S., & Fritsche, I. (2016). Collective efficacy increases pro-environmental intentions through increasing self-efficacy. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 48, 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.08.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
   Google Scholar
• Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285–307. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392498
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kay, A. C., Whitson, J. A., Gaucher, D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2009). Compensatory control: Achieving order through the mind, our institutions, and the heavens. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(5), 264–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01649.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kellstedt, P. M., Zahran, S., & Vedlitz, A. (2008). Personal efficacy, the information environment, and attitudes toward global warming and climate change in the United States. Risk Analysis, 28(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2008.01010.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, S., Jeong, S.-H., & Hwang, Y. (2013). Predictors of pro-environmental behaviors of American and Korean students: The application of the theory of reasoned action and protection motivation theory. Science Communication, 35(2), 168–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547012441692
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Oberauer, K., & Gignac, G. E. (2013). NASA faked the moon landing-therefore, (climate) science is a hoax: An anatomy of the motivated rejection of science. Psychological Science, 24(5), 622–633. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612457686
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., Oreskes, N., Risbey, J. S., Newell, B. R., & Smithson, M. (2015). Seepage: Climate change denial and its effect on the scientific community. Global Environmental Change, 33, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.02.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddux, J. E., & Rogers, R. W. (1983). Protection motivation theory and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(5), 469–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(83)90023-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marlon, J. R., Bloodhart, B., Ballew, M. T., Rolfe-Redding, J., Roser-Renouf, C., Leiserowitz, A., & Maibach, E. (2019). How hope and doubt affect climate change mobilization. Frontiers in Communication, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2019.00020
   Google Scholar
• Metag, J., Schäfer, M. S., Füchslin, T., Barsuhn, T., & Königslöw, K. K. (2016). Perceptions of climate change imagery evoked salience and self-efficacy in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. Science Communication, 38(2), 197–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547016635181
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milfont, T. (2012). The interplay between knowledge, perceived efficacy, and concern about global warming and climate change: A one-year longitudinal study. Risk Analysis, 32(6), 1003–1020. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01800.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ockwell, D., Whitmarsh, L., & O'Neill, S. (2009). Reorienting climate change communication for effective mitigation. Science Communication, 30(3), 305–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547008328969
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neill, S. J., Boykoff, M., Niemeyer, S., & Day, S. A. (2013). On the use of imagery for climate change engagement. Global Environmental Change, 23(2), 413–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.11.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neill, S., & Nicholson-Cole, S. (2009). “Fear won’t do it” Promoting positive engagement with climate change through visual and iconic representations. Science Communication, 30(3), 355–379. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547008329201
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. (2010). Merchants of doubt: How a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming. Bloomsbury Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rutjens, B. T., van der Pligt, J., & van Harreveld, F. (2010). Yes we can: Belief in progress as compensatory control. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1(3), 246–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610361782
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sloman, S. A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2004). Risk as analysis and risk as feelings: Some thoughts about affect, reason, risk, and rationality. Risk Analysis, 24(2), 311–322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, L. G. E., Thomas, E. F., & McGarty, C. (2015). “We must be the change we want to see in the world”: Integrating norms and identities through social interaction. Political Psychology, 36(5), 543–557. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12180
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, P. C. (2000). Toward a more coherent theory of environmentally significant behaviour. Journal of Social Issues, 56(3), 407–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00175
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern, P. C. (2012). Fear and hope in climate messages. Nature Climate Change, 2(8), 572–573. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, E. F., Mavor, K. I., & McGarty, C. (2012). Social identities facilitate and encapsulate action-relevant constructs: A test of the social identity model of collective action. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(1), 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430211413619
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, J. C. (1991). Social influence. Open University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2008). Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: A quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), 504–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.4.504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Zomeren, M., Spears, R., & Leach, C. W. (2010). Experimental evidence for a dual pathway analysis model of coping with the climate crisis. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4), 339–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.02.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59(4), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759209376276
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM). Communication Monographs, 61(2), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759409376328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie, B., Brewer, M. B., Hayes, B. K., McDonald, R. I., & Newell, B. R. (2019). Predicting climate change risk perception and willingness to act. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 65, 101331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101331
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar