Understanding social norms and violence in childhood: theoretical underpinnings and strategies for intervention

References

• Achyut, P., Bhatla, N., & Verma, R. (2015). Questioning gender norms to promote sexual reproductive health among early adolescents: Evidence from a school-based program in Mumbai, India. Gender-Based Violence, 195–213. Springer.10.1007/978-3-319-16670-4
   Google Scholar
• Alexander-Scott, M., Bell, E., & Holden, K. (2016). DFID guidance note: Shifting social norms to tackle violence against women and girls (VAWG). London: DFID, VAWG Helpdesk.
   Google Scholar
• Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgments. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership, and men, 222–236.
   Google Scholar
• Association for Voluntary Action. Bachpan Bachao Andolan. Retrieved from http://www.bba.org.in/
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory for personal and social change by enabling media. In A. Singhal, M. J. Cody, E. M. Rogers, & M. Sabido (Eds.), Entertainment-education and social change: History, research, and practice (pp. 75–96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Berkowitz, A. D. (2003). Applications of social norms theory to other health and social justice issues. In The social norms approach to preventing school and college age substance abuse: A handbook for educators, counselors, and clinicians (pp. 259–279). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Bhatla, N., Achyut, P., Khan, N., Walia, S., & A. T. (2015). Promoting equality and safety in schools. Bangkok, Thailand: Plan International.
   Google Scholar
• Blanchet-Cohen, N., & UNICEF (2009). Children, agency and violence: In and beyond the United Nations study on violence against children. Florence, Italy: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Blankenship, K. M., Friedman, S. R., Dworkin, S., & Mantell, J. E. (2006). Structural interventions: Concepts, challenges and opportunities for research. Journal of Urban Health, 83, 59–72.10.1007/s11524-005-9007-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borsari, B., & Carey, K.B. (2003). Descriptive and injunctive norms in college drinking: a meta-analytic integration. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 331–341.10.15288/jsa.2003.64.331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyce, S., Zeledón, P., Tellez, E., & Barrington, C. (2016). Gender-specific jealousy and infidelity norms as sources of sexual health risk and violence among young coupled nicaraguans. American Journal of Public Health, 106, 625–632.10.2105/AJPH.2015.303016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burchell, K., Rettie, R., & Patel, K. (2013). Marketing social norms: Social marketing and the ‘social norm approach’. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 12, 1–9.10.1002/cb.v12.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butts, J. A., Roman, C. G., Bostwick, L., & Porter, J. R. (2015). Cure violence: A public health model to reduce gun violence. Annual Review of Public Health, 36, 39–53.10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson, J., Casey, E., Edleson, J. L., Tolman, R. M., Walsh, T. B., & Kimball, E. (2015). Strategies to engage men and boys in violence prevention a global organizational perspective. Violence against women, 21, 1406–1425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, J. (2000). Domestic violence, child abuse, and youth violence: strategies for prevention and early intervention. San Francisco, CA: Family Violence Prevention Fund.
   Google Scholar
• Chiang, L. F., Kress, H., Sumner, S. A., Gleckel, J., Kawemama, P., & Gordon, R. N. (2016). Violence against children surveys (VACS): Towards a global surveillance system. Injury Prevention, 22, i17–i22.10.1136/injuryprev-2015-041820
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R., & Kallgren, C. A. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015–1026.10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cismaru, M. (2013). Encouraging bystanders to help in stopping violence against children. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 18, 7–17.10.1002/nvsm.1451
   Google Scholar
• Coker, A. L., Bush, H. M., Fisher, B. S., Swan, S. C., Williams, C. M., Clear, E. R., & DeGue, S. (2016). Multi-college bystander intervention evaluation for violence prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50, 295–302.10.1016/j.amepre.2015.08.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook-Craig, P. G., Coker, A. L., Clear, E. R., Garcia, L. S., Bush, H. M., Brancato, C. J., … Fisher, B. S. (2014). Challenge and opportunity in evaluating a diffusion-based active bystanding prevention program: Green dot in high schools. Violence Against Women, 20, 1179–1202.10.1177/1077801214551288
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craig, W., Harel-Fisch, Y., Fogel-Grinvald, H., Dostaler, S., Hetland, J., Simons-Morton, B., … Pickett, W. (2009). A cross-national profile of bullying and victimization among adolescents in 40 countries. International Journal of Public Health, 54, 216–224.10.1007/s00038-009-5413-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cure Violence. (2016). The cure violence health model. Retrieved from http://cureviolence.org/
   Google Scholar
• Currie, J., & Widom, C. S. (2010). Long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect on adult economic well-being. Child Maltreatment, 15, 111–120.10.1177/1077559509355316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deininger, K., Goyal, A., & Nagarajan, H. (2013). Women’s inheritance rights and intergenerational transmission of resources in India. Journal of Human Resources, 48, 114–141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devries, K. M., Knight, L., Child, J. C., Mirembe, A., Nakuti, J., Jones, R., … Walakira, E. (2015). The Good School Toolkit for reducing physical violence from school staff to primary school students: A cluster-randomised controlled trial in Uganda. The Lancet Global Health, 3, e378–e386.10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00060-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diepeveen, S., & Stolk, C. V. (2012). How effective are CCTs in low income settings? A review exploring factors impacting on programme outcomes in Honduras and Nicaragua. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Diop, N. J., & Askew, I. (2009). The effectiveness of a community-based education program on abandoning female genital mutilation/cutting in Senegal. Studies in Family Planning, 40, 307–318.10.1111/(ISSN)1728-4465
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (2007). The advantages of an inclusive definition of attitude. Social Cognition, 25, 582–602.10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.582
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edleson, J. L. (1999). Children's witnessing of adult domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 839–870.10.1177/088626099014008004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman-Jacobs, C., & Clifton, D. (2014). Female genital mutilation/cutting: data and trends. Update 2010. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau.
   Google Scholar
• Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1977). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Fleckman, J. M., Drury, S. S., Taylor, C. A., & Theall, K. P. (2016). Role of direct and indirect violence exposure on externalizing behavior in children. Journal of Urban Health, 93, 1–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruenbaum, E. (2005). Socio-cultural dynamics of female genital cutting: Research findings, gaps, and directions. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 7, 429–441.10.1080/13691050500262953
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grugel, J., & Peruzzotti, E. (2010). Grounding global norms in domestic politics: Advocacy coalitions and the convention on the rights of the child in Argentina. Journal of Latin American Studies, 42, 29–57.10.1017/S0022216X10000040
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harmony Institute. (2012). MTV’s (Dis)connected: Entertainment Evaluation. Retrieved from http://new.harmony-institute.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/10/DISconnected_full_report_v5.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Hillis, S., Mercy, J., Amobi, A., & Kress, H. (2016). Global prevalence of past-year violence against children: A systematic review and minimum estimates. Pediatrics, 137, 1–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• José Santos, S. (2015). MenCare in Latin America: Challenging harmful masculine norms and promoting positive changes in men’s caregiving EMERGE Case Study 5, Promundo-US, Sonke Gender Justice and the Institute of Development Studies. Retrieved from http://men-care.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2015/10/MenCare-in-Latin-America-EMERGE-Case-Study.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Klugman, J., Hanmer, L., Twigg, S., Hasan, T., McCleary-Sills, J. & Santamaria, J. (2014). Voice and agency: Empowering women and girls for shared prosperity. Washington, DC: World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Know Violence in Childhood: A global learning initiative. (2016). Preventing violence in schools: Lessons from South Asian countries. Retrieved from https://ajws.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Report-of-South-Asia-expert-mtg-on-preventing-violence-in-schools.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Krug, E. G., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., & Zwi, A. B. (2002). The world report on violence and health. The Lancet, 360, 1083–1088.10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11133-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landers, C. (2013). Preventing and responding to violence, abuse, and neglect in early childhood: A technical background document. New York, NY: UNICEF.
   Google Scholar
• Larme, A. C. (1997). Health care allocation and selective neglect in rural Peru. Social Science & Medicine, 44, 1711–1723.10.1016/S0277-9536(96)00373-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leach, F., Dunne, M., & Salvi, F. (2014). School-related Gender-based Violence: A global review of current issues and approaches in policy, programming and implementation responses to School‐ Related Gender‐Based Violence (SRGBV) for the Education Sector.
   Google Scholar
• Leonard, T. C. (2008). Richard H. Thaler, Cass R. Sunstein, Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Constitutional Political Economy, 19, 356–360.10.1007/s10602-008-9056-2
   Google Scholar
• Mackie, G. (1996). Ending footbinding and infibulation: A convention account. American Sociological Review, 61, 999–1017.10.2307/2096305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackie, G. (2000). Female genital cutting: The beginning of the end. Female” circumcision” in Africa: Culture, controversy, and change. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner.
   Google Scholar
• Mackie, G., Moneti, F., Denny, E., & Shakya, H. (2012). What are social norms? How are they measured? University of California at San Diego-UNICEF Working Paper, San Diego.
   Google Scholar
• Malhotra, A., Warner, A., McGonagle, A., Lee-Rife, S., Powell, C., Cantrell, E. V., & Trasi, R. (2011). Solutions to end child marriage: What the evidence shows. Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women.
   Google Scholar
• Marcus, R., & Harper, C. (2014). Gender justice and Social Norms–processes of change for adolescent girls: Towards a conceptual framework 2. Overseas Development Institute (ODI). Retrieved July 24, 2014, from http://www.odi. org/sites/odi. org. uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinionfiles/8831. pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nanda, P., Datta, N., Pradhan, E., Das, P., & Lamba, S. (2016). Making change with cash? Impact of a conditional cash transfer program on age of marriage in India. Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women.
   Google Scholar
• Nolan, J. M., Schultz, P. W., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V. (2008). Normative social influence is underdetected. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 913–923.10.1177/0146167208316691
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paluck, E. L., Ball, L., Poynton, C., & Sieloff, S. (2010). Social norms marketing aimed at gender based violence: A literature review and critical assessment. New York, NY: International Rescue Committee.
   Google Scholar
• Perkins, H. W., Craig, D. W., & Perkins, J. M. (2011). Using social norms to reduce bullying: A research intervention among adolescents in five middle schools. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14, 703–722.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner, R. A., & Rasmusen, E. B. (1999). Creating and enforcing norms, with special reference to sanctions. International Review of Law and Economics, 19, 369–382.10.1016/S0144-8188(99)00013-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pulerwitz, J., Barker, G., Segundo, M., & Nascimento, M. (2006). Promoting gender-equity among young Brazilian men as an HIV prevention strategy. Retrieved from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadg957.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ransford, C., & Slutkin, G. (2016). Seeing and treating violence as a health issue.
   Google Scholar
• Rimal, R. N., & Real, K. (2005). How behaviors are influenced by perceived norms: A test of the theory of normative social behavior. Communication Research, 32, 389–414.10.1177/0093650205275385
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, E. M., & Shoemaker, F. F. (1971). Communication of Innovations; A Cross-Cultural Approach. New York, NY: The Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenstock, I. M. (1974). The health belief model and preventive health behavior. Health Education & Behavior, 2, 354–386.10.1177/109019817400200405
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rousseau, D. M. (2001). Schema, promise and mutuality: The building blocks of the psychological contract. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 511–541.10.1348/096317901167505
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Runyan, D., Wattam, C., Ikeda, R., Hassan, F., & Ramiro, L. (2002). Child abuse and neglect by parents and other caregivers. In E. Krug, L. Dahlberg, J. Mercy, A. Zwi, & R. Lozano (Eds.), World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 59–86.
   Google Scholar
• Sallis, J. F., Owen, N., & Fisher, E. B. (2008). Ecological models of health behavior. Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4, 465–486.
   Google Scholar
• Schelling, T.C. (1980). The strategy of conflict. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V. (2007). The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of Social Norms. Psychological Science, 18, 429–434.10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwab-Stone, M. E., Ayers, T. S., Kasprow, W., Voyce, C., Barone, C., Shriver, T., & Weissberg, R. P. (1995). No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1343–1352.10.1097/00004583-199510000-00020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sipsma, H. L., Chen, P.G., Ofori-Atta, A., Ilozumba, U. O., Karfo, K., & Bradley, E. H. (2012). Female genital cutting: Current practices and beliefs in western Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90, 120–127F.10.2471/BLT.11.090886
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SVRI. (2016). Sikhula ndawonye - Developing an early parenting intervention for women with infants <12 months in age. Retrieved from http://www.svri.org/blog/sikhula-ndawonye-%E2%80%93-developing-early-parenting-intervention-women-infants
   Google Scholar
• UNDP. (2015). Sustainable development goals. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
   Google Scholar
• UNFPA. (2016). The human rights-based approach. Retrieved from http://www.unfpa.org/human-rights-based-approach
   Google Scholar
• UNICEF. (2014). Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children. New York, NY: UNICEF.
   Google Scholar
• Usdin, S., Scheepers, E., Goldstein, S., & Japhet, G. (2005). Achieving social change on gender-based violence: A report on the impact evaluation of Soul City’s fourth series. Social Science & Medicine, 61, 2434–2445.10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.04.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• V4C Nigeria. (2014). V4C’s Approach to Changing Discriminatory Social Norms. Retrieved from http://www.v4c-nigeria.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/V4Cs-Approach-to-changing-social-norms-May-2014.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Webster, D. W., Whitehill, J. M., Vernick, J. S., & Parker, E. M. (2012). Evaluation of Baltimore’s Safe Streets program: Effects on attitudes, participants’ experiences, and gun violence. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Center for the Prevention of Youth Violence, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. (2016). Youth Violence. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs356/en/
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. V., Lee, V., McIntyre-Smith, A., & Jaffe, P. G. (2003). The effects of children’s exposure to domestic violence: A meta-analysis and critique. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 171–187.10.1023/A:1024910416164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, K. A., & Hassan, S. (2016). An assessment of the prevalence, perceived significance, and response to dowry solicitation and domestic violence in Bangladesh. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, [ Epub ahead of print].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zielinski, D. S. (2009). Child maltreatment and adult socioeconomic well-being. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 666–678.10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.09.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar