Action research to improve water quality in Canada’s Rideau Canal: how do local groups reshape environmental governance?

References

• Armitage, Derek, Ryan Plummer, Fikret Berkes, Robert I. Arthur, Anthony T. Charles, Iain J. Davidson-Hunt, Alan P. Diduck, et al. 2009. “Adaptive Co-Management for Social–Ecological Complexity.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7 (2): 95–102. doi:10.1890/070089.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armitage, Derek, Fikret Berkes, and Nancy Doubleday, eds.2007. “Adapting Co-Management and Complexity: Exploring the Many Faces of Co-Management.” In Adaptive Co-Management: Collaboration, Learning, and Multi-Level Governance, 19–37. Vancouver: UBC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bakker, Karen, and Christina Cook. 2011. “Water Governance in Canada: Innovation and Fragmentation.” International Journal of Water Resources Development 27 (2): 275–289. doi:10.1080/07900627.2011.564969.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakker, Elisabeth S., and Sabine Hilt. 2016. “Impact of Water-Level Fluctuations on Cyanobacterial Blooms: Options for Management.” Aquatic Ecology 50 (3): 485–498. doi:10.1007/s10452-015-9556-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berardo, Ramiro, V. Kelly Turner, and Stian Rice. 2019. “Systemic Coordination and the Problem of Seasonal Harmful Algal Blooms in Lake Erie.” Ecology and Society 24 (3): 24. doi:10.5751/ES-11046-240324.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blythe, Stuart, Jeffrey T. Grabill, and Kirk Riley. 2008. “Action Research and Wicked Environmental Problems: Exploring Appropriate Roles for Researchers in Professional Communication.” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 22 (3): 272–298. doi:10.1177/1050651908315973.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boog, Ben W. M. 2003. “The Emancipatory Character of Action Research, Its History and the Present State of the Art.” Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 13 (6): 426–438. doi:10.1002/casp.748.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradbury, Hilary. 2015. The SAGE Handbook of Action Research. 3rd ed. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. doi:10.4135/9781473921290.
   Google Scholar
• Brydon-Miller, Mary, Davydd Greenwood, and Patricia Maguire. 2003. “Why Action Research?” Action Research 1 (1): 9–28. doi:10.1177/14767503030011002.
   Google Scholar
• Burns, Danny. 2007. Systemic Action Research: A Strategy for Whole System Change. 1st ed. Bristol: Policy Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qgvn5.
   Google Scholar
• Burns, Danny, Blane Harvey, and Alfredo Ortiz Aragón. 2012. “Introduction: Action Research for Development and Social Change.” IDS Bulletin (Brighton. 1984) 43 (3): 1–7. doi:10.1111/j.1759-5436.2012.00318.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butts, Carter T. 2019. Sna: Tools for Social Network Analysis (version 2.5). R. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=sna.
   Google Scholar
• Campos, Inês, Filipe Alves, João Dinis, Monica Truninger, André Vizinho, and Gil Penha-Lopes. 2016. “Climate Adaptation, Transitions, and Socially Innovative Action-Research Approaches.” Ecology and Society 21 (1): 13. doi:10.5751/ES-08059-210113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carbonetti, Benjamin, Robert Pomeroy, and David L. Richards. 2014. “Overcoming the Lack of Political Will in Small Scale Fisheries.” Marine Policy 44 (February): 295–301. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2013.09.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr, Liam M., and William D. Heyman. 2012. “‘It’s about Seeing What’s Actually out There’: Quantifying Fishers’ Ecological Knowledge and Biases in a Small-Scale Commercial Fishery as a Path toward Co-Management.” Ocean & Coastal Management 69 (December): 118–132. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2012.07.018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chevalier, Jacques M., and Daniel J. Buckles. 2019. Participatory Action Research: Theory and Methods for Engaged Inquiry. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781351033268.
   Google Scholar
• “Conservation Ontario”. n.d. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://conservationontario.ca/about-us/conservation-ontario.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, Christina. 2014. “Governing Jurisdictional Fragmentation: Tracing Patterns of Water Governance in Ontario, Canada.” Geoforum; Journal of Physical, Human, and Regional Geosciences 56 (September): 192–200. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.07.012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Csardi, G., and T. Nepusz. 2006. The Igraph Software Package for Complex Network Research. R. InterJournal Complex Systems: 1695. http://igraph.org.
   Google Scholar
• Daniel, François-Joseph. 2011. “Action Research and Performativity: How Sociology Shaped a Farmers’ Movement in The Netherlands.” Sociologia Ruralis 51 (1): 17–34. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9523.2010.00525.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson, Seanna L., and Rob C. de Loë. 2016. “The Changing Role of ENGOs in Water Governance: Institutional Entrepreneurs?” Environmental Management 57 (1): 62–78. doi:10.1007/s00267-015-0588-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egmose, Jonas. 2016. Action Research for Sustainability: Social Imagination between Citizens and Scientists. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315565545.
   Google Scholar
• Elliott, Patricia W. 2011. Participatory Action Research: Challenges, Complications, and Opportunities. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan. https://usaskstudies.coop/documents/social-economy-reports-and-newsltrs/participatory-action-research.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Giordano, Raffaele, Alessandro Pagano, Irene Pluchinotta, Rosa Olivo del Amo, Sonia M. Hernandez, and Eduardo S. Lafuente. 2017. “Modelling the Complexity of the Network of Interactions in Flood Emergency Management: The Lorca Flash Flood Case.” Environmental Modelling & Software 95 (September): 180–195. doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2017.06.026.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gloster, Michael. 2000. “Approaching Action Research from a Socioecological Perspective.” Systemic Practice and Action Research 13 (5): 665–682. doi:10.1023/A:1009581610880.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gownaris, N. J., K. J. Rountos, L. Kaufman, J. Kolding, K. M. M. Lwiza, and E. K. Pikitch. 2018. “Water Level Fluctuations and the Ecosystem Functioning of Lakes.” Journal of Great Lakes Research 44 (6): 1154–1163. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2018.08.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, Steven, Alex Chan, Dan Clark, and Rebecca Jordan. 2012. “Modeling the Integration of Stakeholder Knowledge in Social–Ecological Decision-Making: Benefits and Limitations to Knowledge Diversity.” Ecological Modelling, Modeling Human Decisions 229 (March): 88–96. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.09.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, S. A., E. Zanre, and S. R. J. Gray. 2014. “Fuzzy Cognitive Maps as Representations of Mental Models and Group Beliefs.” In Fuzzy Cognitive Maps for Applied Sciences and Engineering, edited by Elpiniki I. Papageorgiou, 54:29–48. Intelligent Systems Reference Library. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39739-4_2.
   Google Scholar
• Gregory, R., L. Failing, M. Harstone, G. Long, T. McDaniels, and D. Ohlson. 2012. Structured Decision Making: A Practical Guide to Environmental Management Choices. 1st ed. UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/9781444398557.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, Budd, Edward Jackson, Rajesh Tandon, Jean-Marc Fontan, and Nirmala Lall, eds. 2013. Knowledge, Democracy and Action: Community-University Research Partnerships in Global Perspectives. Universities and Lifelong Learning Series. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim, Mona, Michelle Marko, Benjamin Bjertness, Matthew Zabel, and Jeff Forester. 2017. “Minnesota’s Lake Associations: Who They Are and What They Do.” http://www.mnlakesandrivers.org/sites/mnlakesandrivers.org/files/files/mn-lake-association-survey-2017-report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Imperial, Mark T. 2005. “Using Collaboration as a Governance Strategy: Lessons from Six Watershed Management Programs.” Administration & Society 37 (3): 281–320. doi:10.1177/0095399705276111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ison, Ray. 2008. “Systems Thinking and Practice for Action Research.” In The SAGE Handbook of Action Research, edited by Peter Reason, and Hilary Bradbury, 2nd ed., 139–158. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. doi:10.4135/9781848607934.n15.
   Google Scholar
• Jeanson, Amanda L., Peter Soroye, Andrew N. Kadykalo, Taylor D. Ward, Emmelie Paquette, Alice E. I. Abrams, Dirk A. Algera, et al. 2020. “Twenty Actions for a ‘Good Anthropocene’—Perspectives from Early-Career Conservation Professionals.” Environmental Reviews 28 (1): 99–108. doi:10.1139/er-2019-0021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Jae Hong, Timothy D. Keane, and Eric A. Bernard. 2015. “Fragmented Local Governance and Water Resource Management Outcomes.” Journal of Environmental Management 150 (March): 378–386. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.12.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein, Sheri. 2012. Action Research Methods: Plain and Simple. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• König, Ariane, and Jerome Ravetz. 2018. Sustainability Science: Key Issues. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Kušová, Drahomíra, and Jan Těšitel. 2017. “Action Research in Landscape Ecology (Šumava Biosphere Reserve, Czech Republic Case Study).” Ekológia (Bratislava) 36 (4): 323–338.
   Google Scholar
• Lichtenstein, Benyamin. 2015. “Complex Systems and Emergence in Action Research.” In The SAGE Handbook of Action Research, edited by Hilary Bradbury, 3rd ed., 446–452. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. https://methods.sagepub.com/book/the-sage-handbook-of-action-research-3e/i2819.xml.
   Google Scholar
• Lin, H.-Y., S. J. Cooke, C. Wolter, N. Young, and J. R. Bennett. 2020. “On the Conservation Value of Historic Canals for Aquatic Ecosystems.” Biological Conservation 251 (November): 108764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108764
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• London, Jonathan K, Kirsten Schwarz, Mary L Cadenasso, Bethany B Cutts, Charles Mason, Jeanette Lim, Katie Valenzuela-Garcia, and Heather Smith. 2018. “Weaving Community-University Research and Action Partnerships for Environmental Justice.” Action Research 16 (2): 173–189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundmark, Carina, Simon Matti, and Annica Sandström. 2014. “Adaptive Co-Management: How Social Networks, Deliberation and Learning Affect Legitimacy in Carnivore Management.” European Journal of Wildlife Research 60 (4): 637–644. doi:10.1007/s10344-014-0827-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maclean, Kirsten. 2015. Cultural Hybridity and the Environment. Singapore: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Mancilla García, María, Jacob Hileman, and Örjan Bodin. 2019. “Collaboration and Conflict in Complex Water Governance Systems Across a Development Gradient: Addressing Common Challenges and Solutions.” Ecology and Society 24 (3): 28. doi:10.5751/ES-11133-240328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenna, Stacey A, and Deborah S Main. 2013. “The Role and Influence of Key Informants in Community-Engaged Research: A Critical Perspective.” Action Research 11 (2): 113–124. doi:10.1177/1476750312473342.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medema, Wietske, Arjen Wals, and Jan Adamowski. 2014. “Multi-Loop Social Learning for Sustainable Land and Water Governance: Towards a Research Agenda on the Potential of Virtual Learning Platforms.” NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 69 (June): 23–38. doi:10.1016/j.njas.2014.03.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Midgley, Gerald. 2015. “Systemic Intervention.” In The SAGE Handbook of Action Research, edited by Hilary Bradbury, 3rd ed., 157–166. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. doi:10.4135/9781473921290.n16.
   Google Scholar
• Montgomery, Jenna, Wei Xu, Henning Bjornlund, and Jane Edwards. 2016. “A Table for Five: Stakeholder Perceptions of Water Governance in Alberta.” Agricultural Water Management 174 (August): 11–21. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2016.04.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell, Barry, and Katrina Proust. 2012. “Introduction to Collaborative Conceptual Modelling.” ANU Open Access Research, https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/9386.
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen, Vivian M., Abigail J. Lynch, Nathan Young, Ian G. Cowx, T. Douglas Beard, William W. Taylor, and Steven J. Cooke. 2016. “To Manage Inland Fisheries Is to Manage at the Social-Ecological Watershed Scale.” Journal of Environmental Management 181 (October): 312–325. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.06.045.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsson, Per, Carl Folke, Victor Galaz, Thomas Hahn, and Lisen Schultz. 2007. “Enhancing the Fit through Adaptive Co-Management: Creating and Maintaining Bridging Functions for Matching Scales in the Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve, Sweden.” Ecology and Society 12 (1): 28. doi:10.5751/ES-01976-120128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Özesmi, Uygar, and Stacy L. Özesmi. 2004. “Ecological Models Based on People’s Knowledge: A Multi-Step Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping Approach.” Ecological Modelling 176 (1–2): 43–64. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2003.10.027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papageorgiou, Elpiniki, and Areti Kontogianni. 2012. “Using Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping in Environmental Decision Making and Management: A Methodological Primer and an Application.” In International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change, edited by Stephen Young, and Steven Silvern, 427–450. Rijeka: IntechOpen.
   Google Scholar
• Rauch, Franz, Angela Schuster, Thomas Stern, Maria Pribila, and Andrew Townsend, eds. 2014. Promoting Change through Action Research. Sense Publishers. doi:10.1007/978-94-6209-803-9.
   Google Scholar
• R Core Team. 2017. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Reason, Peter, and Susan Canney. 2015. “Action Research and Ecological Practice.” In The SAGE Handbook of Action Research, edited by Hilary Bradbury, 3rd ed., 553–563. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. doi:10.4135/9781473921290.n57.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, Kevin H., Rebecca Luton, Harry Biggs, Reinette (Oonsie) Biggs, Sonja Blignaut, Aiden G. Choles, Carolyn G. Palmer, and Pius Tangwe. 2013. “Fostering Complexity Thinking in Action Research for Change in Social–Ecological Systems.” Ecology and Society 18 (2), https://www.jstor.org/stable/26269310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saikkonen, Paula. 2013. “From Unknown Problem to an Acknowledged Local Environmental Problem – a Case of Polluted Soil in the City of Helsinki.” Local Environment 18 (8): 888–903. doi:10.1080/13549839.2012.738658.
   Google Scholar
• Sayles, Jesse S., and Jacopo A. Baggio. 2017. “Social–Ecological Network Analysis of Scale Mismatches in Estuary Watershed Restoration.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114 (10): E1776–E1785. doi:10.1073/pnas.1604405114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schröter, Barbara, Karla Sessin-Dilascio, Claas Meyer, Bettina Matzdorf, Claudia Sattler, Angela Meyer, Gregor Giersch, Camila Jericó-Daminello, and Lukas Wortmann. 2014. “Multi-Level Governance through Adaptive Co-Management: Conflict Resolution in a Brazilian State Park.” Ecological Processes 3 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1186/2192-1709-3-6.
   Google Scholar
• Sonnenburg, E. P., J. I. Boyce, and E. G. Reinhardt. 2009. “Multi-Proxy Paleoenvironmental Record of Colonial Land-Use Change in the Lower Rideau Canal System (Colonel By Lake), Ontario, Canada.” Journal of Paleolimnology 42 (4): 515–532. doi:10.1007/s10933-008-9302-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stakias, George, Markos Psoras, and Michael Glykas. 2013. “Fuzzy Cognitive Maps in Social and Business Network Analysis.” In Business Process Management: Theory and Applications, edited by Michael Glykas, 241–279. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-28409-0_10.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, David. 2006. “A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data.” American Journal of Evaluation 27 (2): 237–246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turney, Shaun, and Michael Bachhofer. 2016. FCMapper: Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (R package version 1.1.). https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=FCMapper.
   Google Scholar
• Warner, Mildred. 2001. “Building Social Capital: The Role of Local Government.” Journal of Socio-Economics 30 (2): 187–192. doi:10.1016/S1053-5357(00)00105-0.
   Google Scholar
• Wittmayer, Julia M., and Niko Schäpke. 2014. “Action, Research and Participation: Roles of Researchers in Sustainability Transitions.” Sustainability Science 9 (4): 483–496. doi:10.1007/s11625-014-0258-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, Oran R. 2002. The Institutional Dimension of Environmental Change: Fit, Interplay, and Scale. Cambridge: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Young, Nathan. 2020. “The Future is co-Managed: Promises and Problems of Collaborative Governance of Natural Resources.” In The Cambridge Handbook of Environmental Sociology, Volume 2, edited by Katharine Legun, Julie Keller, Michael Bell, and Michael Carolan, 352–366. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar