The “Steroid Dementia Syndrome”: A Possible Model of Human Glucocorticoid Neurotoxicity

References

• Abernethy , L. J. , Palaniappan , M. and Cooke , R. W. 2002 . Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in survivors of very low birth weight . Archives of Diseases in Childhood , 87 ( 4 ) : 279 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alderson , A. L. and Novack , T. A. 2002 . N.europhysiological and clinical aspects of glucocorticoids and memory: A review . Journal of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology , 24 ( 3 ) : 335 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen , D. B. , Bielory , L. , Derendorf , H. , Dluhy , R. , Colice , G. L. and Szefler , S. J. 2003 . Inhaled corticosteroids: Past lessons and future issues . The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology , 112 ( 3 Suppl ) : S1 – 40 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Annett , R. D. , Aylward , E. H. , Lapidus , J. , Bender , B. G. and DuHamel , T. 2000 . Neurocognitive functioning in children with mild and moderate asthma in the childhood asthma management program. The Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP) Research Group . The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology , 105 ( 4 ) : 717 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arndt , M. , Kunert , H. J. , Sass , H. and Norra , C. 2004 . [Cognitive impairment after accidental high-dose corticosteroid therapy] . Nervenarzt , 75 ( 9 ) : 904 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bardgett , M. E. , Taylor , G. T. , Csernansky , J. G. , Newcomer , J. W. and Nock , B. 1994 . Chronic corticosterone treatment impairs spontaneous alternation behavior in rats . Behavioral and Neural Biology , 61 : 186 – 90 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bates , J. A. and Malhotra , A. K. 2002 . Genetic factors and neurocognitive traits . CNS Spectrums , 7 ( 4 ) : 274 – 84 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Belanoff , J. K. , Gross , K. , Yager , A. and Schatzberg , A. F. 2001 . Corticosteroids and cognition . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 35 : 127 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bender , B. G. , Ikle , D. N. , DuHamel , T. and Tinkelman , D. 1998 . Neuropsychological and behavioral changes in asthmatic children treated with beclomethasone dipropionate versus theophylline . Pediatrics , 101 ( 3 Pt 1 ) : 355 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhattacharyya , A. , Kaushal , K. , Tymms , D. J. and Davis , J. R. 2005 . Steroid withdrawal syndrome after successful treatment of Cushing's syndrome: A reminder . European Journal of Endocrinology , 153 ( 2 ) : 207 – 10 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigler , E. D. and Clement , P. 1997 . Diagnostic clinical neuropsychology , 3rd , Austin, TX : University of Texas Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bigler , E. D. , Anderson , C. V. and Blatter , D. D. 2002 . Temporal lobe morphology in normal aging and traumatic brain injury . American Journal of Neuroradiology , 23 ( 2 ) : 255 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigler , E. D. , Tate , D. F. , Neeley , E. S. , Wolfson , L. J. , Miller , M. J. Rice , S. A. 2003 . Temporal lobe, autism and macrocephaly . American Journal of Neuroradiology , 24 : 2066 – 76 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigler , E. D. , Neeley , E. S. , Miller , M. J. , Tate , D. F. , Rice , S. A. Cleavinger , H. 2004 . Cerebral volume loss, cognitive deficit and neuropsychological performance: Comparative measures of brain atrophy: I. Dementia . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 10 : 442 – 52 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjorntorp , P. 2002 . “ Hypothalamic origin of prevalent human disease ” . In Hormones, brain and behavior , Edited by: Pfaff , D. , Arnold , A. , Etgen , A. , Fahrbach , S. and Rubin , R. T. San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Blatter , D. D. , Bigler , E. D. , Gale , S. D. , Johnson , S. C. , Andersen , C. V. Burnett , B. M. 1995 . Quantitative volumetric analysis of brain: Normative database spanning 5 decades of life . American Journal of Neuroradiology , 16 : 241 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , E. S. and Chandler , P. A. 2001 . Mood and cognitive changes during systemic corticosteroid therapy . Primary Care Companion Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 3 ( 1 ) : 17 – 21 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown , E. S. , Rush , A. J. and McEwen , B. S. 1999 . Hippocampal remodelling and damage by corticosteroids: Implications for mood disorders . Neuropsychopharmacology , 21 : 474 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , E. S. , Woolston , D. J. , Frol , A. , Bobadilla , L. , Khan , D. A. Hanczyc , M. 2004 . Hippocampal volume, spectroscopy, cognition, and mood in patients receiving corticosteroid therapy . Biological Psychiatry , 55 : 538 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chrousos , G. P. and Harris , A. G. 1998 . Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis suppression and inhaled corticosteroid therapy. 2. Review of the literature . Neuroimmunomodulation , 5 ( 6 ) : 288 – 308 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chrousos , G. P. and Gold , P. W. 1998 . Editorial: A healthy body in a healthy mind—and vice versa—The damaging power of “uncontrollable” stress . The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism , 83 ( 6 ) : 1842 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Kloet , E. R. , Vreugdenhil , E. , Oitzl , M. S. and Joels , M. 1998 . Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease . Endocrine Reviews , 19 ( 3 ) : 269 – 301 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Leon , M. J. , McRae , T. , Rusinek , H. , Convit , A. , De Santi , S. Tarshish , C. 1997 . Cortisol reduces hippocampal glucose metabolism in normal elderly, but not in Alzheimer's disease . The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism , 82 ( 10 ) : 3251 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Quervain , D. J. , Henke , K. , Aerni , A. , Treyer , V. , McGaugh , J. L. Berthold , T. 2003 . Glucocorticoid-induced impairment of declarative memory retrieval is associated with reduced blood flow in the medial temporal lobe . The European Journal of Neuroscience , 17 : 1296 – 302 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duman , R. S. , Heninger , G. R. and Nestler , E. J. 1997 . A molecular and cellular theory of depression . Archives of General Psychiatry , 54 : 597 – 606 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunleavy , R. A. and Baade , L. E. 1980 . Neuropsychological correlates of severe asthma in children 9–14 years old . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 48 ( 2 ) : 214 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egeland , J. , Lund , A. , Landro , N. I. , Rund , B. R. , Sundet , K. Asbjornsen , A. 2005 . Cortisol level predicts executive and memory function in depression, symptom level predicts psychomotor speed . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica , 112 ( 6 ) : 434 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folstein , M. F. , Folstein , S. E. and McHugh , P. R. 1975 . “Mini-mental state”. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 12 ( 3 ) : 189 – 98 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank , C. and Sagratella , S. 2000 . Neuroprotective effects of allopregnenolone on hippocampal irreversible neurotoxicity in vitro . Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology, Biology and Psychiatry , 24 ( 7 ) : 1117 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Good , T. A. , Benton , J. W. and Kelley , V. C. 1959 . Symptomatology resulting from withdrawal of steroid hormone therapy . Arthritis and Rheumatism , 2 : 299 – 321 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Giles , J. , Giordani , B. , Ryan , K. , Berent , S. , Schteingart , E. Schultz , A. 2001 . Hippocampal, glucocorticoid, and cognitive changes in treated Cushing's disease [abstract] . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 7 ( 2 ) : 240
   Google Scholar
• Grisso , T. 1988 . Competency to stand trial evaluations: A manual for practice , Sarasota, FL : Professional Resource Exchange Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Hajek , T. , Kopecek , M. , Preiss , M. , Alda , M. and Hoschl , C. 2006 . Prospective study of hippocampal volume and function in human subjects treated with corticosteroids . European Psychiatry , 21 ( 2 ) : 123 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , R. C. , Popkin , M. K. , Stickney , S. K. and Gardner , E. R. 1979 . Presentation of the steroid psychoses . The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 167 ( 4 ) : 229 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huizenga , N. A. T. M. , Koper , J. W. , De Lange , P. , Pols , H. A. P. , Stolk , R. P. Burger , H. 1998 . A polymorphism in the glucocorticoid receptor gene may be associated with an increased sensitivity to glucocorticoids in vivo . The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism , 83 : 144 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isgor , C. , Kabbaj , M. , Akil , H. and Watson , S. J. 2004 . Delayed effects of chronic variable stress during peripubertal-juvenile period on hippocampal morphology and on cognitive and stress axis functions in rats . Hippocampus , 14 ( 5 ) : 636 – 48 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kazdin , A. E. 1982 . Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Keenan , P. A. and Kuhn , T. W. 1999 . Do glucocorticoids have adverse effects on brain function? . CNS Drugs , 11 ( 4 ) : 245 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan , P. A. , Jacobson , M. W. , Soleymani , R. M. and Newcomer , J. W. 1995 . Commonly used therapeutic doses of glucocorticoids impair explicit memory . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 761 : 400 – 2 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keil , M. F. , Rawson , E. , Wiggs , E. A. , Stratakis , C. A. , Chrousos , G. P. and Merke , D. P. Persistent changes in cognitive function in children with Cushing's Disease three years following cure . The Endocrine Society's 85th Annual Meeting . June 20 2003 , Philadelphia, PA. pp. #P2 – 400 .
   Google Scholar
• Khiat , A. , Yared , Z. , Bard , C. , Lacroix , A. and Boulanger , Y. 2001 . Long-term brain metabolic alterations in exogenous Cushing's syndrome as monitored by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy . Brain Research , 911 ( 2 ) : 134 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagomasino , I. T. and Stern , T. A. 2001 . Steroid psychosis: The neuropsychiatric complications of glucocorticoid use . Medical Psychiatry , 4 : 35 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• Lewis , D. A. and Smith , R. E. 1983 . Steroid-induced Psychiatric Syndromes . Journal of Affective Disorders , 5 : 319 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lezak , M. 1983 . Neuropsychological assessment , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lipworth , B. J. 1999 . Systemic adverse effects of inhaled corticosteroid therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis . Archives of Internal Medicine , 159 ( 9 ) : 941 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lodygensky , G. A. , Rademaker , K. , Zimine , S. , Gex-Fabry , M. , Lieftink , A. F. Lazeyras , F. 2005 . Structural and functional brain development after hydrocortisone treatment for neonatal chronic lung disease . Pediatrics , 116 ( 1 ) : 1 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ling , M. H. , Perry , P. J. and Tsuang , M. T. 1981 . Side effects of corticosteroid therapy. Psychiatric aspects . Archives of General Psychiatry , 38 ( 4 ) : 471 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucassen , P. J. , Heine , V. M. , Muller , M. B. , van der Beek , E. M. , Wiegant , V. De Kloet , E. R. 2006 . Stress, depression and hippocampal apoptosis . CNS Neurological Disorders and Drug Targets , 5 ( 5 ) : 531 – 46 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lupien , S. J. and Lepage , M. 2001 . Stress, memory, and the hippocampus: Can't live with it, can't live without it . Behavioral Brain Research , 127 ( 1–2 ) : 137 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupien , S. J. and McEwen , B. S. 1997 . The acute effects of corticosteroids on cognition: Integration of animal and human studies . Brain Research Reviews , 24 : 1 – 27 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupien , S. J. , Lecours , A. R. , Lussier , I. , Schwartz , G. , Nair , N. P. V. and Meaney , M. J. 1994 . Basal cortisol levels and cognitive deficits in human aging . Journal of Neuroscience , 14 ( 5 ) : 2893 – 903 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupien , S. J. , de Leon , M. , De Santi , S. , Convit , A. , Tarshish , C. Nair , N. P. V. 1998 . Longitudinal increase in cortisol during human aging predicts hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits . Nature Neuroscience , 1 : 69 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupien , S. J. , Gillin , C. and Hauger , R. L. 1999a . Working memory is more sensitive than declarative memory to the acute effects of corticosteroids: A dose–response study . Behavioral Neuroscience , 113 : 1 – 11 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupien , S. J. , Nair , N. P. , Briere , S. , Maheu , F. , Tu , M. T. Lemay , M. 1999b . Increased cortisol levels and impaired cognition in human aging: Implications for depression and dementia in later life . Reviews in the Neurosciences , 10 ( 2 ) : 117 – 39 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupien , S. J. , Wilkinson , C. W. , Briere , S. , Menard , C. , Ng Ying Kin , N. M. K. and Nair , N. P. V. 2002a . The modulatory effects of corticosteroids on cognition: Studies in young human populations . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 27 : 401 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lupien , S. J. , Wilkinson , C. W. , Briere , S. , Menard , C. , Ng Ying Kin , N. M. and Nair , N. P. 2002b . The modulatory effects of corticosteroids on cognition: Studies in young human populations . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 27 ( 3 ) : 401 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mc Ewen , B. S. 1997 . Possible mechanisms for atrophy of the human hippocampus . Molecular Psychiatry , 2 ( 3 ) : 255 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mc Ewen , B. S. , Conrad , C. D. , Kuroda , Y. , Frankfurt , M. , Magarinos , A. M. and McKittrick , C. 1997 . Prevention of stress-induced morphological and cognitive consequences . European Neuropsychopharmacology , 7 ( Suppl. 3 ) : S323 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Mc Ewen , B. S. and Magarinos , A. M. 2001 . Stress and hippocampal plasticity: Implications for the pathophysiology of affective disorders . Human Psychopharmacological Clinical Experiments , 16 : S7 – S19 .
   Google Scholar
• Mc Kittrick , C. R. , Magarinos , A. M. , Blanchard , D. C. , Blanchard , R. J. , McEwen , B. S. and Sakai , R. R. 2000 . Chronic social stress reduces dendritic arbors in CA3 of hippocampus and decreases binding to serotonin transporter sites . Synapse , 36 ( 2 ) : 85 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merke , D. P. , Giedd , J. N. , Keil , M. F. , Mehlinger , S. L. , Wiggs , E. A. Holzer , S. 2005 . Children experience cognitive decline despite reversal of brain atrophy one year after resolution of Cushing syndrome . Journal of Clinical Endocrinology Metabolism , 90 ( 5 ) : 2531 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newcomer , J. W. , Selke , G. , Melson , A. K. , Hershey , T. , Craft , S. Richards , K. 1999 . Decreased memory performance in healthy humans induced by stress-level cortisol treatment . Archives of General Psychiatry , 56 ( 6 ) : 527 – 33 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nichols , N. R. , Zieba , M. and Bye , N. 2001 . Do glucocorticoids contribute to brain aging? . Brain Research Reviews , 37 : 273 – 86 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nishikaze , O. 1998 . 17-KS sulfate as a biomarker in health and disease . Rinsho Byori , 46 ( 6 ) : 520 – 8 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Norra , C. , Arndt , M. and Kunert , H. J. 2006 . Steroid dementia: An overlooked diagnosis? . Neurology , 66 ( 1 ) : 155 author reply
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oei , N. Y. , Everaerd , W. T. , Elzinga , B. M. , van Well , S. and Bermond , B. 2006 . Psychosocial stress impairs working memory at high loads: An association with cortisol levels and memory retrieval . Stress (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) , 9 ( 3 ) : 133 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prodan , C. I. , Monnot , M. , Ross , E. D. and Coleman , A. E. 2006 . Reversible dementia with parkinsonian features associated with budesonide use . Neurology , 67 ( 4 ) : 723
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reckart , M. D. and Eisendrath , S. J. 1990 . Exogenous corticosteroid effects on mood and cognition: Case presentations . International Journal of Psychosomatics , 37 ( 1–4 ) : 57 – 61 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reus , V. I. and Wolkowitz , O. M. 2003 . “ Psychiatric effects of glucocorticoid hormone medications ” . In Psychoneuroendocrinology: The scientific basis of clinical practice , Edited by: Wolkowitz , O. M. and Rothschild , A. J. 189 – 204 . Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Reynolds , C. R. and Bigler , E. D. 1994 . Test of memory and learning , Austin, TX : PRO-ED Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Sacks , O. and Shulman , M. 2005 . Steroid dementia: An overlooked diagnosis? . Neurology , 64 ( 4 ) : 707 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sapolsky , R. M. 2000 . The possibility of neurotoxicity in the hippocampus in major depression: A primer on neuron death . Biological Psychiatry , 48 ( 8 ) : 755 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheslow , D. and Adams , W. 1990 . Wide range assessment of memory and learning , Wilmington, DE : Jastak Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Starkman , M. N. , Giordani , B. , Berent , S. , Schork , M. A. and Schteingart , D. E. 2001 . Elevated cortisol levels in Cushing's Disease are associated with cognitive decrements . Psychosomatic Medicine , 63 : 985 – 93 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varney , N. R. 1997 . A case of reversible steroid dementia . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 12 ( 2 ) : 167 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varney , N. R. , Alexander , B. and MacIndoe , J. H. 1984 . Reversible steroid dementia in patients without steroid psychosis . The American Journal of Psychiatry , 141 : 369 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler , D. 1991 . Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children , 3rd , San Antonio, TX : The Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Weldon , D. P. and McGeady , S. J. 1995 . Theophylline effects on cognition, behavior, and learning . Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine , 149 ( 1 ) : 90 – 3 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wiedenmayer , C. P. , Bansal , R. , Anderson , G. M. , Zhu , H. , Amat , J. Whiteman , R. 2006 . Cortisol levels and hippocampus volumes in healthy preadolescent children . Biological Psychiatry , 60 ( 8 ) : 856 – 861 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilner , A. P. , de Varennes , B. , Gregoire , P. A. , Lupien , S. and Pruessner , J. C. 2002 . Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy after heart transplantation . Annals of Thorac Surgery , 73 ( 6 ) : 1965 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolkowitz , O. M. 1994 . Prospective controlled studies of the behavioral and biological effects of exogenous corticosteroids . Psychoneuroendocrinology , 19 ( 3 ) : 233 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolkowitz , O. M. and Rapaport , M. 1989 . Long-lasting behavioral changes following prednisone withdrawal [letter] [published erratum appears in JAMA 1989 Oct 6; 262(13):1776]. . Journal of the American Medical Association , 261 ( 12 ) : 1731 – 2 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolkowitz , O. M. and Reus , V. I. 2003 . Neurotransmitters, neurosteroids and neurotrophins: New models of the pathophysiology and treatment of depression . World Journal of Biology Psychiatry , 4 : 98 – 102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolkowitz , O. M. , Reus , V. I. , Weingartner , H. , Thompson , K. , Breier , A. Doran , A. 1990 . Cognitive effects of corticosteroids . The American Journal of Psychiatry , 147 ( 10 ) : 1297 – 303 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolkowitz , O. M. , Reus , V. I. , Canick , J. , Levin , B. and Lupien , S. J. 1997 . Glucocorticoid medication, memory and steroid psychosis in medical illness . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 823 : 81 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolkowitz , O. M. , Epel , E. S. and Reus , V. I. 2001 . Stress hormone-related psychopathology: Pathophysiological and treatment implications . World Journal of Biology Psychiatry , 2 : 115 – 43 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wright , M. , De Geus , E. , Ando , J. , Luciano , M. , Posthuman , D. Ono , Y. 2001 . Genetics and cognition: Outline of a collaborative twin study . Twin Research , 4 : 48 – 56 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yau , J. L. W. and Seckl , J. R. 2001 . 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I in the brain: Thickening the glucocorticoid soup . Molecular Psychiatry , 6 : 611 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar