Data spanning three decades illustrate racial disparities in likelihood of obesity

References

• Bauer, Greta R. 2014. “Incorporating Intersectionality Theory into Population Health Research Methodology: Challenges and the Potential to Advance Health Equity.” Social Science & Medicine 110: 10–17. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, A. C., L. S. Adair, and B. M. Popkin. 2002. “Ethnic Differences in the Association between Body Mass Index and Hypertension.” American Journal of Epidemiology 155 (4): 346–353. doi: 10.1093/aje/155.4.346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, K. K., and P. DeCicca. 2008. “Local Labor Market Fluctuations and Health: Is There a Connection and for Whom?” Journal of Health Economics 27 (6): 1532–1550. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.06.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christian, H., M. Knuiman, M. Divitini, S. Foster, P. Hooper, B. Boruff, F. Bull, and B. Giles-Corti. 2017. “A Longitudinal Analysis of the Influence of the Neighborhood Environment on Recreational Walking within the Neighborhood: Results from RESIDE.” Environmental Health Perspectives 125 (7): 10. doi:10.1289/ehp823.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cutler, David M., Edward L. Glaeser, and Jesse M. Shapiro. 2003. “Why Have Americans Become More Obese?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 (3): 93–118. doi: 10.1257/089533003769204371
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danaei, Goodarz, Eric L. Ding, Dariush Mozaffarian, Ben Taylor, Jürgen Rehm, Christopher J. L. Murray, and Majid Ezzati. 2009. “The Preventable Causes of Death in the United States: Comparative Risk Assessment of Dietary, Lifestyle, and Metabolic Risk Factors.” PLoS Medicine 6 (4): e1000058. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000058
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etherington, Nicole. 2015. “Race, Gender, and the Resources That Matter: An Investigation of Intersectionality and Health.” Women & Health 55 (7): 754–777. doi:10.1080/03630242.2015.1050544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fang, J., K. M. Shaw, and N. L. Keenan. 2011. “Prevalence of Coronary Heart Disease–United States, 2006-2010.” In Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, edited by Centers for Diesease Control and Prevention U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1377–1381. Atlanta, GA: CDC.
   Google Scholar
• Farmer, M. M., and K. F. Ferraro. 2005. “Are Racial Disparities in Health Conditional on Socioeconomic Status?” Social Science & Medicine 60 (1): 191–204. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.04.026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flegal, Katherine M., Barry I. Graubard, David F. Williamson, and Mitchell H. Gail. 2007. “Cause-specific Excess Deaths Associated with Underweight, Overweight, and Obesity.” JAMA 298 (17): 2028–2037. doi: 10.1001/jama.298.17.2028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson, P. E., M. Persson, and A. Hammarstrom. 2012. “Socio-economic Disadvantage and Body Mass Over the Life Course in Women and men: Results from the Northern Swedish Cohort.” The European Journal of Public Health 22 (3): 322–327. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckr061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hankivsky, Olena. 2012. “Women’s Health, Men’s Health, and Gender and Health: Implications of Intersectionality.” Social Science & Medicine 74 (11): 1712–1720. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, J., C. Wilson, L. Roberts, R. Munt, and M. Crotty. 2014. “Social Barriers to Type 2 Diabetes Self-management: The Role of Capital.” Nursing Inquiry 21 (4): 336–345. doi:10.1111/nin.12073.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heron, M. 2016. “Deaths: Leading Causes for 2014.” In Statistics Reoprts, June 30, 2016. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Heath and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
   Google Scholar
• Heron, M., and R. N. Anderson. 2016. “Changes in the Leading Cause of Death: Recent Patterns in Heart Disease and Cancer Mortality.” Cancer 400 (500,000): 600,000.
   Google Scholar
• Hilbe, Joseph M., J. W. Hardin, and H. W. Hardin. 2003. Generalized Estimating Equations. Boca Baton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hubert, Helen B., Manning Feinleib, Patricia M. McNamara, and William P. Castelli. 1983. “Obesity as an Independent Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease: A 26- Year Follow-up of Participants in the Framingham Heart Study.” Circulation 67 (5): 968–977. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.67.5.968
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahng, S. K. 2010. “Can Racial Disparity in Health between Black and White Americans Be Attributed to Racial Disparities in Body Weight and Socioeconomic Status?” Health & Social Work 35 (4): 257–266. doi: 10.1093/hsw/35.4.257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., K. D. Mickelson, and D. R. Williams. 1999. “The Prevalence, Distribution, and Mental Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination in the United States.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 40 (3): 208–230. doi: 10.2307/2676349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knoops, Kim T. B., Lisette C. P. G. M. de Groot, Daan Kromhout, Anne-Elisabeth Perrin, Olga Moreiras-Varela, Alessandro Menotti, and Wija A. Van Staveren. 2004. “Mediterranean Diet, Lifestyle Factors, and 10-year Mortality in Elderly European Men and Women.” JAMA 292 (12): 1433–1439. doi: 10.1001/jama.292.12.1433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamon-Fava, S., P. W. F. Wilson, and E. J. Schaefer. 1996. “Impact of Body Mass Index on Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factors in Men and Women: The Framingham Offspring Study.” Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 16: 1509–1515. doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.16.12.1509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaVeist, T. A. 2005. “Disentangling Race and Socioeconomic Status: A Key to Understanding Health Inequalities.” Journal of Urban Health-Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 82 (2): III26–III34. doi:10.1093/jurban/jti061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B. G., and J. Phelan. 1995. “Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Extra Issue: 80–94. doi: 10.2307/2626958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, C. C., and T. C. Cheng. 2012. “The Role of Social Structural Factors in Treatment of Mental Health Disorder.” Journal of Mental Health 21 (5): 430–438. doi:10.3109/09638237.2012.664303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, C. C., T. C. Cheng, and R. J. Howell. 2014a. “Access to and Utilization of Health Services as Pathway to Racial Disparities in Serious Mental Illness.” Community Mental Health Journal 50 (3): 251–257. doi:10.1007/s10597-013-9593-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, C. C., T. C. Cheng, and R. J. Howell. 2014b. “Problem Drinking’s Associations with Social Structure and Mental Health Care: Race/Ethnicity Differences.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 46 (3): 233–242. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2014.887161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, C. C., R. J. Howell, and T. C. Cheng. 2013a. “Disparities in Whites’ versus Blacks’ Self-rated Health: Social Status, Health-care Services, and Health Behaviors.” Journal of Community Health 38 (4): 727–733. doi:10.1007/s10900-013-9671-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, C. C., R. J. Howell, and T. C. Cheng. 2013b. “Explaining Black-White Differences in Homicide Victimization.” Aggression and Violent Behavior 18 (1): 125–134. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.11.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, C. C., J. Lara, and T. C. Cheng. 2017. “Skin Deep: Enhanced Variable May Help Explain Racial Disparities in Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes.” Diabetes Therapy 8: 837–850. doi: 10.1007/s13300-017-0278-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, K. 2012. “The Unequal Weight of Discrimination: Gender, Body Size, and Income Inequality.” Social Problems 59 (3): 411–435. doi:10.1525/sp.2012.59.3.411.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCracken, M., and H. M. Blanck. 2007. “Health Behaviors of the Young Adult U.S. Population: Behavioral Risk Factors Surveillance System, 2003.” Preventing Chronic Disease: Public Health Research, Practice, and Policy 4 (2): 1–15.
   Google Scholar
• Messner, Steven F., and Richard Rosenfeld. 2001. “An Institutional-anomie Theory of Crime.” In Explaining Criminals and Crime. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
   Google Scholar
• Mokdad, Ali H., James S. Marks, Donna F. Stroup, and Julie L. Gerberding. 2004. “Actual Causes of Death in the United States, 2000.” JAMA 291 (10): 1238–1245. doi: 10.1001/jama.291.10.1238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Center for Health Statistics. 2012. Health, United States, 2011: With Special Feature on Socioeconomic Status and Health. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
   Google Scholar
• National Center for Health Statistics. 2016. Health, United States, 2015: With Special Feature on Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities.
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen, A. B., R. Moser, and W. Y. Chou. 2014. “Race and Health Profiles in the United States: An Examination of the Social Gradient Through the 2009 CHIS Adult Survey.” Public Health 128 (12): 1076–1086. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2014.10.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavlova, M. K., and R. K. Silbereisen. 2012. “Age, Cumulative (Dis)Advantage, and Subjective Well-being in Employed and Unemployed Germans: A Moderated Mediation Model.” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 17 (1): 93–104. doi:10.1037/a0026426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearlin, L. I., S. Schieman, E. M. Fazio, and S. C. Meersman. 2005. “Stress, Health, and the Life Course: Some Conceptual Perspectives.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 46 (2): 205–219. doi: 10.1177/002214650504600206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phelan, J. C., and B. G. Link. 2005. “Controlling Disease and Creating Disparities: A Fundamental Cause Perspective.” The Journals of Gerontology: Series B 60: S27–S33. doi: 10.1093/geronb/60.Special_Issue_2.S27
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phelan, J. C., B. G. Link, A. Diez-Roux, I. Kawachi, and B. Levin. 2004. “‘Fundamental Causes’ of Social Inequalities in Mortality: A Test of the Theory.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 45 (3): 265–285. doi: 10.1177/002214650404500303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phelan, J. C., B. G. Link, and P. Tehranifar. 2010. “Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Health Inequalities: Theory, Evidence, and Policy Implications.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 51: S28–S40. doi:10.1177/0022146510383498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remington, Patrick L., and Ross C. Brownson. 2011. “Fifty Years of Progress in Chronic Disease Epidemiology and Control.” MMWR. Surveillance Summaries 60 (Suppl. 4): 70–77.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfield, Sarah. 1989. “The Effects of Women's Employment: Personal Control and Sex Differences in Mental Health.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 30: 77–91. doi: 10.2307/2136914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, Judith D., and John B. Willett. 2003. Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis: Modeling Change and Event Occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Valenzuela Jr, Abel. 2003. “Day Labor Work.” Annual Review of Sociology 29: 307–333. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100044
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dam, Rob M., Tricia Li, Donna Spiegelman, Oscar H. Franco, and Frank B. Hu. 2008. “Combined Impact of Lifestyle Factors on Mortality: Prospective Cohort Study in US Women.” BMJ 337: a1440. doi: 10.1136/bmj.a1440
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virtanen, P., J. Vahtera, U. Broms, L. Sillanmaeki, M. Kivimaeki, and M. Koskenvuo. 2008. “Employment Trajectory as Determinant of Change in Health-related Lifestyle: The Prospective HeSSup Study.” The European Journal of Public Health 18 (5): 504–508. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckn037.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., and C. Collins. 1995. “US Socioeconomic and Racial Differences in Health: Patterns and Explanations.” Annual Review of Sociology 21: 349–386. doi: 10.1146/annurev.so.21.080195.002025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., and C. Collins. 2001. “Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health.” Public Health Reports 116 (5): 404–416. doi:10.1016/s0033-3549(04)50068-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, David R., and Pamela Braboy Jackson. 2005. “Social Sources of Racial Disparities in Health.” Health Affairs 24 (2): 325–334. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.24.2.325
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, David R., and Selina A. Mohammed. 2009. “Discrimination and Racial Disparities in Health: Evidence and Needed Research.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 32 (1): 20–47. doi: 10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., and M. Sternthal. 2010. “Understanding Racial-ethnic Disparities in Health: Sociological Contributions.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 51: S15–S27. doi:10.1177/0022146510383838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, W. J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wong, R. J., C. Chou, and A. Ahmed. 2014. “Long Term Trends and Racial/Ethnic Disparities in the Prevalence of Obesity.” Journal of Community Health 39 (6): 1150–1160. doi:10.1007/s10900-014-9870-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, Wu, and Ann Leffler. 1992. “Gender and Race Effects on Occupational Prestige, Segregation, and Earnings.” Gender & Society 6 (3): 376–392. doi: 10.1177/089124392006003003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zick, C. D., K. R. Smith, J. X. Fan, B. B. Brown, I. Yamada, and L. Kowaleski-Jones. 2009. “Running to the Store? The Relationship between Neighborhood Environments and the Risk of Obesity.” Social Science & Medicine 69 (10): 1493–1500. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.08.032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar