Coronavirus stigmatization and psychological distress among Asians in the United States

References

• Armstead, Cheryl A, Kathleen A Lawler, Gloria Gorden, John Cross, and Judith Gibbons. 1989. “Relationship of Racial Stressors to Blood Pressure Responses and Anger Expression in Black College Students.” Health Psychology 5 (5): 541–556.
   Google Scholar
• Aylward, Bruce, and Wannian Liang. 2020. Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Vol. 2019. https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, Justin A., Emily Zhang, and Cindy H. Liu. 2020. “Potential Impact of COVID-19-related Racial Discrimination on the Health of Asian Americans.” American Journal of Public Health, 1–4. doi:10.2105/ajph.2020.305858.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheryan, Sapna. 2005. “‘Where are You Really from ?’ Asian Americans and Identity Denial.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (5): 717–730. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung, Roger Yat-nork, and Minnie Ming Li. 2020. “Anti-Chinese Sentiment During the 2019-NCoV Outbreak Early Lessons from the Frontline of the 2019-NCoV Outbreak.” The Lancet 395 (10225): 686–687. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30358-5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Earnshaw, Valerie A., Sari L. Reisner, David D. Menino, V. Paul Poteat, Laura M. Bogart, Tia N. Barnes, and Mark A. Schuster. 2018. “Stigma-based Bullying Interventions : A Systematic Review.” Developmental Review 48 (January): 178–200. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2018.02.001.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ellerbeck, Alex. 2020. “Over 30 Percent of Americans Have Witnessed COVID-19 Bias against Asians, Poll Says.” NBC News. April 28. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/over-30-americans-have-witnessed-covid-19-bias-against-asians-n1193901.
   Google Scholar
• Espiritu, Yen Le. 2016. “Race and U.S. Panethnic Formation.” In The Oxford Handbook of American Immigration and Ethnicity, 1st ed., edited by Ronald H. Bayor, 213–231. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Garg, Shikha, Lindsay Kim, Michael Whitaker, Alissa O’Halloran, Charisse Cummings, Rachel Holstein, Mila Prill, et al. 2020. “Hospitalization Rates and Characteristics of Patients Hospitalized with Laboratory-confirmed Coronavirus Diseases 2019 – COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1–30, 2020.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 69 (15): 458–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gee, Gilbert C., Annie Ro, Salma Shariff-Marco, and David Chae. 2009. “Racial Discrimination and Health among Asian Americans: Evidence, Assessment, and Directions for Future Research.” Epidemiologic Reviews 31 (January): 130–151. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxp009.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goffman, Erving. 2009. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York City: Simon and Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Hahm, Hyeouk Chris, Al Ozonoff, Jillian Gaumond, and Stanley Sue. 2010. “Perceived Discrimination and Health Outcomes. A Gender Comparison among Asian-Americans Nationwide.” Women’s Health Issues 20 (5): 350–358. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2010.05.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahm, Hyeouk Chris, and Miwa Yasui. 2019. “Guest Editors’ Introduction to the Special Section: Cultural Adaptation of Mental Health Interventions for Americans of East Asian Descent.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 89 (4): 458–461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, Mark L., Jo C. Phelan, and Bruce G. Link. 2013. “Stigma as a Fundamental Cause of Population Health Inequalities.” American Journal of Public Health 103 (5): 813–821. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung, Ho-Fung. 2004. “The Politics of SARS: Containing the Perils of Globalization by More Globalization.” Asian Perspective 28 (1): 19–44.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson, Chris. 2020. “New Center for Public Integrity/Ipsos Poll Finds Most Americans Say the Coronavirus Pandemic is a Natural Disaster – Ipsos.” Ipsos. Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Jarlais, Don C. Des, Sandro Galea, Melissa Tracy, Susan Tross, and David Vlahov. 2006. “Stigmatization of Newly Emerging Infectious Diseases: AIDS and SARS.” American Journal of Public Health 96 (3): 561–567. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.054742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jernigan, Daniel B., and CDC COVID-19 Response Team. 2020. “Update : Public Health Response to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Outbreak – United States, February 14, 2020.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 69 (8): 216–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeung, Russell. 2020. “Incidents of Coronavirus Discrimination: March 26–April 1, 2020.” San Francisco, CA. https://www.asianpacificpolicyandplanningcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/Stop_AAPI_Hate_Weekly_Report_4_3_20.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy, Steven, Michael P. Kidd, James Ted Mcdonald, and Nicholas Biddle. 2015. “The Healthy Immigrant Effect : Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries.” International Migration & Integration 16: 317–332. doi:10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krieger, Nancy. 1990. “Racial and Gender Discrimination: Risk Factors for High Blood Pressure?” Social Science & Medicine 30 (12): 1273–1281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke, Kurt, Robert L. Spitzer, Janet B. W. Williams, and Bernd Löwe. 2009. “An Ultra-Brief Screening Scale for Anxiety and Depression: The PHQ–4.” Psychosomatics 50 (6): 613–621. doi:10.1016/s0033-3182(09)70864-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, Sing, Lydia Y. Y. Chan, Annie M. Y. Chau, Kathleen P. S. Kwok, and Arthur Kleinman. 2005. “The Experience of SARS-related Stigma at Amoy Gardens.” Social Science & Medicine 61: 2038–2046. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.04.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, Minsun, David Takeuchi, Zvi Gellis, Philip Kendall, Lin Zhu, Shanyang Zhao, and Grace X. Ma. 2017. “The Impact of Perceived Need and Relational Factors on Mental Health Service Use among Generations of Asian Americans.” Journal of Community Health 42: 688–700. doi:10.1007/s10900-016-0305-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, Bruce G., and Jo C. Phelan. 2001. “Conceptualizing Stigma.” Annual Review of Sociology 27 (1): 363–385. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez, Gustavo, Neil G. Ruiz, and Eileen Patten. 2017. Key Facts about Asian Americans, a Diverse and Growing Population. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
   Google Scholar
• Marcus, Kenneth. 2020. Covid-19 Outbreak Statement. Washington, DC: US Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Margolin, Josh. 2020. “FBI Warns of Potential Surge in Hate Crimes against Asian Americans amid Coronavirus.” ABC News. March 27. https://abcnews.go.com/US/fbi-warns-potential-surge-hate-crimes-asian-americans/story?id=69831920.
   Google Scholar
• Norton, Edward C., and Morgen M. Miller. 2013. “Computing Adjusted Risk Ratios and Risk Differences in Stata.” The State Journal (3): 492–509. doi:10.1177/1536867X1301300304.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ong, Anthony D., Anthony L. Burrow, Thomas E. Fuller-Rowell, Nicole M. Ja, and Derald Wing Sue. 2013. “Racial Microaggressions and Daily Well-Being among Asian Americans.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 60 (2): 188–199. doi:10.1037/a0031736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Person, Bobbie, Francisco Sy, Kelly Holton, Barbara Govert, Arthur Liang, and Ncid Sars. 2004. “Fear and Stigma: The Epidemic within the SARS Outbreak.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 10 (2): 358–363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. 2013. Second-Generation Americans: A Portrait of the Adult Children of Immigrants. Pew Research Center: Washington, DC.
   Google Scholar
• Pyke, Karen D., and Denise L. Johnson. 2003. “Asian American Women and Racialized Femininities: ‘Doing’ Gender across Cultural Worlds.” Gender and Society 17 (1): 33–53. doi:10.1177/0891243202238977.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reny, Tyler T., and Matt A. Barreto. 2020. “Xenophobia in the Time of Pandemic: Othering, Anti-Asian Attitudes, and COVID-19.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 1–24. doi:10.1080/21565503.2020.1769693.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risse, Guenter B. 2012. Plague, Fear, and Politics in San Francisco’s Chinatown. 1st ed. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rogin, Josh. 2020. “The Coronavirus Crisis Is Turning Americans in Both Parties against China.” The Washington Post, April 8.
   Google Scholar
• Rüsch, Nicolas, Patrick W. Corrigan, Karina Powell, Anita Rajah, Manfred Olschewski, Sandra Wilkniss, and Karen Batia. 2009. “A Stress-Coping Model of Mental Illness Stigma: II. Emotional Stress Responses, Coping Behavior and Outcome.” Schizophrenia Research 110 (1–3): 65–71. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2009.01.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schild, Leonard, Chen Ling, Jeremy Blackburn, Gianluca Stringhini, Yang Zhang, and Savvas Zannettou. 2020. “‘Go Eat a Bat, Chang !’: An Early Look on the Emergence of Sinophobic Behavior on Web Communities in the Face of COVID-19.” ArXiv. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2004.04046.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Schvey, Natasha A., Rebecca M. Puhl, and Kelly D. Brownell. 2014. “The Stress of Stigma: Exploring the Effect of Weight Stigma on Cortisol Reactivity.” Psychosomatic Medicine 76 (2): 156–162. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimizu, Kazuki. 2020. “2019-NCoV, Fake News, and Racism.” The Lancet 395 (10225): 685–686. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30357-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sue, Derald Wing, Jennifer Bucceri, Annie I. Lin, Kevin L. Nadal, and Gina C. Torino. 2009. “Racial Microaggressions and the Asian American Experience.” Asian American Journal of Psychology S (1): 88–101. doi:10.1037/1948-1985.s.1.88.
   Google Scholar
• Sue, Stanley, Janice Ka, Yan Cheng, Carmel S. Saad, and Joyce P. Chu. 2012. “Asian American Mental Health: A Call to Action.” American Psychologist 67 (7): 532–544. doi:10.1037/a0028900.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. 2020. The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Expresses Concern Over Growing Anti-Asian Racism and Xenophobia Amid the COVID-19 Outbreak.
   Google Scholar
• VanderWeele, Tyler J., and Peng Ding. 2017. “Sensitivity Analysis in Observational Research: Introducing the E-Value.” Annals of Internal Medicine 167 (4): 268–274. doi:10.7326/M16-2607.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Yu, Yang Feng, Haofu Liao, Jiebo Luo, and Xiangyang Xu. 2018. “Do They All Look the Same? Deciphering Chinese, Japanese and Koreans by Fine-Grained Deep Learning.” Proceedings – IEEE 1st Conference on Multimedia Information Processing and Retrieval, MIPR 2018, no. October: 39–44. doi:10.1109/MIPR.2018.00015.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, Mitchell G., Jayashree Ramakrishna, Daryl Somma, Mitchell G. Weiss, and Jayashree Ramakrishna. 2006. “Health-Related Stigma: Rethinking Concepts and Interventions.” Psychology, Health & Medicine 11 (3): 277–287. doi:10.1080/13548500600595053.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Whalen, Kelly, Nazmia Alqadi, and Libby Mcinerny. 2013. Building Stronger, Safer Communities: A Guide for Law Enforcement and Community Partners to Prevent and Respond to Hate Crimes. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice – Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, David R., and Selina A. Mohammed. 2013. “Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions.” American Behavioral Scientist 57 (8): 1200–1226. doi:10.1177/0002764213487341.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woo, Bongki, Wen Fan, Thanh V. Tran, and David T. Takeuchi. 2019. “The Role of Racial / Ethnic Identity in the Association Between Racial Discrimination and Psychiatric Disorders : A Buffer or Exacerbator ?” SSM – Population Health 7: 100378. doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2015. “World Health Organization Best Practices for the Naming of New Human Infectious Diseases.” https://www.who.int/topics/infectious_diseases/naming-new-diseases/en/.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, Rongrong, Milo S. Wang, Madeline Toubiana, and Royston Greenwood. 2020. “Stigma Beyond Levels: Advancing Research on Stigmatization.” Academy of Management Annals. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2019.0031.
   Google Scholar