Gendered racism, anxiety, and depression: the mediating roles of gendered racialized stress and social isolation

References

• Abrams, J. A., A. Hill, and M. Maxwell. 2019. “Underneath the Mask of the Strong Black Woman Schema: Disentangling Influences of Strength and Self-Silencing on Depressive Symptoms among U.S. Black Women.” Sex Roles 80 (9-10): 517–526. doi:10.1007/s11199-018-0956-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, R. K., H. L. Blackmon, and F. L. Stevens. 2009. “Major Depressive Disorder in the African American Population: Meeting the Challenges of Stigma, Misdiagnosis, and Treatment Disparities.” Journal of the National Medical Association 101 (11): 1084–1089. doi:10.1016/s0027-9684(15)31102-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. 2007. “You Have to Show Strength.” Gender & Society 21 (1): 28–51. doi:10.1177/0891243206294108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. 2009. Behind the Mask of the Strong Black Woman: Voice and the Embodiment of a Costly Performance. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=vahvwfNDhz8C.
   Google Scholar
• Belgrave, F. Z., and J. A. Abrams. 2016. “Reducing Disparities and Achieving Equity in African American Women’s Health.” The American Psychologist 71 (8): 723–733. doi:10.1037/amp0000081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, E. L. 2019. Myths, Stereotypes and Realities of African-American Women: A Personal Reflection. Classic Reprint. London: Forgotten Books. https://books.google.com/books/about/Myths_Stereotypes_and_Realities_of_Afric.html?hl=&id=Yj90tAEACAAJ.
   Google Scholar
• Borowsky, S. J., L. V. Rubenstein, L. S. Meredith, P. Camp, M. Jackson-Triche, and K. B. Wells. 2000. “Who Is at Risk of Nondetection of Mental Health Problems in Primary Care?” Journal of General Internal Medicine 15 (6): 381–388. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2000.12088.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braveman, P. A., S. Kumanyika, J. Fielding, T. Laveist, L. N. Borrell, R. Manderscheid, and A. Troutman. 2011. “Health Disparities and Health Equity: The Issue Is Justice.” American Journal of Public Health 101 (Suppl 1): S149–S155. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2010.300062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau, J., K. S. Kendler, M. Su, S. Gaxiola-Aguilar, and R. C. Kessler. 2005. “Lifetime Risk and Persistence of Psychiatric Disorders Across Ethnic Groups in the United States.” Psychological Medicine 35 (3): 317. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc2748985/.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, C., H. C. Schulberg, and M. J. Madonia. 1996. “Clinical Presentations of Major Depression by African Americans and Whites in Primary Medical Care Practice.” Journal of Affective Disorders 41 (3): 181–191. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(96)00085-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrington, C. H. 2006. “Clinical Depression in African American Women: Diagnoses, Treatment, and Research.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 62 (7): 779–791. doi:10.1002/jclp.20289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler, D. 2010. “The Underutilization of Health Services in the Black Community.” Journal of Black Studies 40 (5): 915–931. doi:10.1177/0021934708320723.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, E. C. 2018. “Relationship Between Loneliness and Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in African American men and Women: Evidence for Gender as a Moderator.” Personality and Individual Differences 120: 138–143. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.08.035.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole, E. R. 2009. “Intersectionality and Research in Psychology.” The American Psychologist 64 (3): 170–180. doi:10.1037/a0014564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, P. H. 2000. “Gender, Black Feminism, and Black Political Economy.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 568 (1): 41–53. doi:10.1177/000271620056800105.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, P. H. 2019. Intersectionality as Critical Social Theory. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, J. N. 2016. A Call for a Language Shift: From Covert Oppression to Overt Empowerment. Storrs, CT: Op-Ed.
   Google Scholar
• Crear-Perry, J., R. Correa-de-Araujo, T. Lewis Johnson, M. R. McLemore, E. Neilson, and M. Wallace. 2021. “Social and Structural Determinants of Health Inequities in Maternal Health.” Journal of Women’s Health 30 (2): 230–235. doi:10.1089/jwh.2020.8882.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crenshaw, K. 1991. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color.” Stanford Law Review 43 (6): 1241. doi:10.2307/1229039.
   Google Scholar
• Eaton, W. W., C. Smith, M. Ybarra, C. Muntaner, and A. Tien. 2004. “Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: Review and Revision (CESD and CESD-R).” In The Use of Psychological Testing for Treatment Planning and Outcomes Assessment: Instruments for Adults, Vol. 3, edited by M. E. Maruish, 3rd ed., 363–377. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2004-14941-011.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Elion, A. A., K. T. Wang, R. B. Slaney, and B. H. French. 2012. “Perfectionism in African American Students: Relationship to Racial Identity, GPA, Self-Esteem, and Depression.” Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 18 (2): 118–127. doi:10.1037/a0026491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Essed, P. 1991. Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=1XA5DQAAQBAJ.
   Google Scholar
• Ford, C. L., and C. O. Airhihenbuwa. 2010. “The Public Health Critical Race Methodology: Praxis for Antiracism Research.” Social Science & Medicine 71 (8): 1390–1398. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gara, M. A., S. Minsky, S. M. Silverstein, T. Miskimen, and S. M. Strakowski. 2019. “A Naturalistic Study of Racial Disparities in Diagnoses at an Outpatient Behavioral Health Clinic.” Psychiatric Services 70 (2): 130–134. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201800223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• González, H. M., W. A. Vega, D. R. Williams, W. Tarraf, B. T. West, and H. W. Neighbors. 2010. “Depression Care in the United States: Too Little for Too Few: Too Little for Too Few.” Archives of General Psychiatry 67 (1): 37–46. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, N., M. Hamer, and A. Steptoe. 2009. “Social Isolation and Stress-Related Cardiovascular, Lipid, and Cortisol Responses.” Annals of Behavioral Medicine: A Publication of the Society of Behavioral Medicine 37 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9081-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardeman, R. R., E. M. Medina, and K. B. Kozhimannil. 2016. “Structural Racism and Supporting Black Lives — The Role of Health Professionals.” New England Journal of Medicine 375 (22): 2113–2115. doi:10.1056/nejmp1609535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Himle, J. A., R. E. Baser, R. J. Taylor, R. D. Campbell, and J. S. Jackson. 2009. “Anxiety Disorders among African Americans, Blacks of Caribbean Descent, and Non-Hispanic Whites in the United States.” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23 (5): 578–590. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.01.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jee-Lyn García, J., and M. Z. Sharif. 2015. “Black Lives Matter: A Commentary on Racism and Public Health.” American Journal of Public Health 105 (8): e27–e30. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C., and K. Shorter-Gooden. 2003. Shifting: Based on the African American Women’s Voices Project. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
   Google Scholar
• Klonoff, E. A., and H. Landrine. 1995. “The Schedule of Sexist Events: A Measure of Lifetime and Recent Sexist Discrimination in Women’s Lives.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 19 (4): 439–472. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00086.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacey, K. K., R. Parnell, D. M. Mouzon, N. Matusko, D. Head, J. M. Abelson, and J. S. Jackson. 2015. “The Mental Health of US Black Women: The Roles of Social Context and Severe Intimate Partner Violence.” BMJ Open 5 (10): e008415. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawson, E. 2002. “Images in Black: Black Women, Media and the Mythology of an Orderly Society.” In Back to the Drawing Board: African-Canadian Feminisms, edited by Njoki Nathani Wane, Katerina Deliovsky, and Erica Lawson, 199–223. Toronto, ON: Sumach Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, J. A., R. Mendenhall, S. A. Harwood, and M. Browne Huntt. 2013. “Coping with Gendered Racial Microaggressions among Black Women College Students.” Journal of African American Studies 17 (1): 51–73. doi:10.1007/s12111-012-9219-0.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, J. A., R. Mendenhall, S. A. Harwood, and M. B. Huntt. 2016. “Ain’t I a Woman?” The Counseling Psychologist 44 (5): 758–780. doi:10.1177/0011000016641193.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, J. A., and H. A. Neville. 2015. “Construction and Initial Validation of the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Black Women.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 62 (2): 289–302. doi:10.1037/cou0000062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, J. A., M. G. Williams, E. J. Peppers, and C. A. Gadson. 2017. “Applying Intersectionality to Explore the Relations Between Gendered Racism and Health among Black Women.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 64 (5): 475–486. doi:10.1037/cou0000231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCall, L. 2005. “The Complexity of Intersectionality.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 30 (3): 1771–1800. doi:10.1086/426800.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, M. J., B. T. Keum, C. J. Thai, Y. Lu, N. N. Truong, G. A. Huh, X. Li, J. G. Yeung, and L. H. Ahn. 2018. “Practice Recommendations for Addressing Racism: A Content Analysis of the Counseling Psychology Literature.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 65 (6): 669–680. doi:10.1037/cou0000306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moradi, B., and L. M. Subich. 2003. “A Concomitant Examination of the Relations of Perceived Racist and Sexist Events to Psychological Distress for African American Women.” The Counseling Psychologist 31 (4): 451–469. doi:10.1177/0011000003031004007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno, O., and E. Cardemil. 2013. “Religiosity and Mental Health Services: An Exploratory Study of Help Seeking among Latinos.” Journal of Latina/o Psychology 1 (1): 53–67. https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/lat/1/1/53/.
   Google Scholar
• Moreno, O., and R. Corona. 2021. “Considerations to Youth’s Psychopathology and Mental Healthcare Disparities Research Through the Intersections of Dominant and Non-dominant Identities.” Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology 49 (1): 19–23. doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00716-6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., and B. Muthen. 2017. Mplus User’s Guide: Statistical Analysis with Latent Variables, User’s Guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice, & Committee on Community-Based Solutions to Promote Health Equity in the United States. 2017. Communities in Action: Pathways to Health Equity. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://books.google.com/books/about/Communities_in_Action.html?hl=&id=AIKPDgAAQBAJ.
   Google Scholar
• Nazroo, J. Y. 2003. “The Structuring of Ethnic Inequalities in Health: Economic Position, Racial Discrimination, and Racism.” American Journal of Public Health 93 (2): 277–284. doi:10.2105/ajph.93.2.277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, T., E. V. Cardemil, and C. T. Adeoye. 2016. “Rethinking Strength: Black Women’s Perceptions of the ‘Strong Black Woman’ Role.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 40 (4): 551–563. doi:10.1177/0361684316646716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, T., S. C. Ernst, C. Cirado, J. L. Fisse, and O. Moreno. 2021. “Psychological Distress and Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Services in a Sample of Black Women: The Role of Past Mental Health Treatment.” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s40615-021-00983-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, T., N. N. Shahid, and E. V. Cardemil. 2020. “Do I Really Need to Go and See Somebody? Black Women’s Perceptions of Help-Seeking for Depression.” Journal of Black Psychology 46 (4): 263–286. doi:10.1177/0095798420931644.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olbert, C. M., A. Nagendra, and B. Buck. 2018. “Meta-analysis of Black vs. White Racial Disparity in Schizophrenia Diagnosis in the United States: Do Structured Assessments Attenuate Racial Disparities?” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 127 (1): 104–115. doi:10.1037/abn0000309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascoe, E. A., and L. S. Richman. 2009. “Perceived Discrimination and Health: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Psychological Bulletin 135 (4): 531–554. doi:10.1037/a0016059.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, E., J. M. Pattarini, R. A. Mulcahy, S. B. Beger, M. R. Mitchell, Y. D. Hu, K. N. Middleton, et al. 2021. “Adapting Disease Prevention Protocols for Human Spaceflight During COVID-19.” Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance 92 (7): 597–602. doi:10.3357/AMHP.5832.2021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pieterse, A. L., N. R. Todd, H. A. Neville, and R. T. Carter. 2012. “Perceived Racism and Mental Health Among Black American Adults: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 59 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1037/a0026208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pruitt, S. M., D. L. Hoyert, K. N. Anderson, J. Martin, L. Waddell, C. Duke, M. A. Honein, and J. Reefhuis. 2020. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Fetal Deaths — United States, 2015–2017.” MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 69 (37): 1277–1282. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6937a1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, L., and M. Lobel. 2020. “Gendered Racism and the Sexual and Reproductive Health of Black and Latina Women.” Ethnicity & Health 25 (3): 367–392. doi:10.1080/13557858.2018.1439896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, D. W. 1996. “UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, Validity, and Factor Structure.” Journal of Personality Assessment 66 (1): 20–40. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6601_2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shahid, N. N., T. Nelson, and E. V. Cardemil. 2018. “Lift Every Voice: Exploring the Stressors and Coping Mechanisms of Black College Women Attending Predominantly White Institutions.” Journal of Black Psychology 44 (1): 3–24. doi:10.1177/0095798417732415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shankar, A., A. McMunn, J. Banks, and A. Steptoe. 2011. “Loneliness, Social Isolation, and Behavioral and Biological Health Indicators in Older Adults.” Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 30 (4): 377–385. doi:10.1037/a0022826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shrestha, S., K. Ramos, T. L. Fletcher, C. Kraus-Schuman, M. A. Stanley, D. Ramsey, and A. B. Amspoker. 2020. “Psychometric Properties of Worry and Anxiety Measures in a Sample of African American and Caucasian Older Adults.” Aging & Mental Health 24 (2): 315–321. doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1544217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, W. A., W. R. Allen, and L. L. Danley. 2007. “Assume the Position . . . You Fit the Description.” American Behavioral Scientist 51 (4): 551–578. doi:10.1177/0002764207307742.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitzer, R. L., K. Kroenke, J. B. W. Williams, and B. Löwe. 2006. “A Brief Measure for Assessing Generalized Anxiety Disorder: The GAD-7.” Archives of Internal Medicine 166 (10): 1092–1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., and J. A. Lewis. 2016. “Gendered Racism, Coping, Identity Centrality, and African American College Women’s Psychological Distress.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 40 (2): 229–243. doi:10.1177/0361684315616113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., and D. N. Stewart. 2010. “Racism and Sexism as Correlates of African American Women’s Psychological Distress.” Sex Roles 63 (3-4): 226–238. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9788-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Targosz, S., P. Bebbington, G. Lewis, T. Brugha, R. Jenkins, M. Farrell, and H. Meltzer. 2003. “Lone Mothers, Social Exclusion and Depression.” Psychological Medicine 33 (4): 715–722. doi:10.1017/s0033291703007347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, A. J., K. M. Witherspoon, and S. L. Speight. 2008. “Gendered Racism, Psychological Distress, and Coping Styles of African American Women.” Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 14 (4): 307–314. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson-Singleton, N. N. 2017. “Strong Black Woman Schema and Psychological Distress: The Mediating Role of Perceived Emotional Support.” Journal of Black Psychology 43 (8): 778–788. doi:10.1177/0095798417732414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, N. N., and C. D. Hunter. 2015. “Anxiety and Depression Among African American Women: The Costs of Strength and Negative Attitudes Toward Psychological Help-Seeking.” Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 21 (4): 604–612. doi:10.1037/cdp0000015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R. 2018. “Stress and the Mental Health of Populations of Color: Advancing Our Understanding of Race-Related Stressors.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 59 (4): 466–485. doi:10.1177/0022146518814251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., H. M. Gonzalez, H. Neighbors, R. Nesse, J. M. Abelson, J. Sweetman, and J. S. Jackson. 2007. “Prevalence and Distribution of Major Depressive Disorder in African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Results from the National Survey of American Life.” Archives of General Psychiatry 64 (3): 305–315. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/482214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., and S. A. Mohammed. 2009. “Discrimination and Racial Disparities in Health: Evidence and Needed Research.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 32 (1): 20–47. doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods-Giscombé, C. L. 2010. “Superwoman Schema: African American Women’s Views on Stress, Strength, and Health.” Qualitative Health Research 20 (5): 668–683. doi:10.1177/1049732310361892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods-Giscombé, C. L., and A. R. Black. 2010. “Mind-Body Interventions to Reduce Risk for Health Disparities Related to Stress and Strength Among African American Women: The Potential of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, Loving-Kindness, and the NTU Therapeutic Framework.” Complementary Health Practice Review 15 (3): 115–131. doi:10.1177/1533210110386776.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Woods-Giscombé, C. L., and M. Lobel. 2008. “Race and Gender Matter: A Multidimensional Approach to Conceptualizing and Measuring Stress in African American Women.” Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 14 (3): 173–182. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.3.173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward, A. T. 2011. “Discrimination and Help-Seeking: Use of Professional Services and Informal Support Among African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic Whites with a Mental Disorder.” Race and Social Problems 3 (3): 146. https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12552-011-9049-z.pdf&casa_token=e9oJLPByEH4AAAAA:BhuMhV9GMLUv8twqpSWj1zwpzG546aIPylq8W2UnjLdqj4UDFI7OF_9J0naaI52Ub_jaW1sgX1UKHbYNJ6I.
   Google Scholar