788
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Cannabis Reclassification: What is the Message to the Next Generation of Cannabis Users?

Pages 57-73 | Published online: 21 Jan 2009

References

  • Adams , I. B. and Martin , B. R. 1996 . Cannabis: Pharmacology and toxicology in animals and humans . Addiction , 91 : 1585 – 1614 .
  • Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. 2002 . The classification of cannabis under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 , London : Home Office .
  • Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. 2008 . Cannabis: Classification and public health , London : Home Office .
  • Ali , R. , Christie , P. , Lenton , S. , Hawks , D. , Sutton , A. and Allsop , S. 1999 . The social impacts of the cannabis expiation notice scheme in South Australia , Canberra : Department of Health and Aged Care .
  • Ashton , H. 2001 . Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: A brief review . British Journal of Psychiatry , 178 : 101 – 106 .
  • Beautrais , A. L. , Joyce , P. R. and Mulder , R. 1999 . Cannabis abuse and serious suicide attempts . Addiction , 94 ( 8 ) : 1155 – 1164 .
  • Bewley-Taylor , D. R. 2001 . The United States and International Drug Control, 1909–1997 , London : Continuum .
  • Boister , N. 2001 . Decriminalising the personal use of cannabis in the UK: Does international law leave room for manoeuvre . Criminal Law Review , (March) , 1717 – 183 .
  • Bloom , J. W. , Kaltenborn , W. T. , Paoletti , P. , Camilli , A. and Lebowitz , M. D. 1987 . Respiratory effects of non-tobacco cigarettes . British Medical Journal , 295 : 1516 – 1518 .
  • Brook , J. S. , Brook , D. W. , De La Rosa , M. , Duque , L. F. , Rodriguez , E. , Montoya , I. D. and Whiteman , M. 1998 . Pathways to marijuana use among adolescents: Cultural/ecological, family, peer, and personality influences . Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 37 : 759 – 766 .
  • Brunn , K. , Pan , L. and Rexed , I. 1975 . The gentlemen's club: International control of drugs and alcohol , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
  • Caplan , G. A. and Brigham , B. A. 1989 . Marijuana smoking and carcinoma of the tongue. Is there an association? . Cancer , 66 : 1005 – 1006 .
  • CCSA . 1998 . Cannabis control in Canada: Options regarding possession . Retrieved November 29, 2008, from http://www.ccsa.ca/cdn-prof99f.htm .
  • Chen , Y. C. , O'Brien , M. S. and Anthony , J. C. 2005 . Who becomes cannabis dependent soon after onset of use? Epidemiological evidence from the United States 2001–01 . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 79 : 11 – 22 .
  • Chopra , G. S. and Smith , J. W. 1974 . Psychotic reactions following cannabis use in East Indians . Archives of General Psychiatry , 30 : 24 – 27 .
  • Coffey , C. , Carlin , J. B. , Lynskey , M. , Li , N. and Patton , G. 2003 . Adolescent precursors of cannabis dependence: Findings from the Adolescent Victorian Health Cohort Study . British Journal of Psychiatry , 182 : 330 – 336 .
  • Cohen , P. D. A. 1997 . The case of the two Dutch drug policy commissions: An exercise in harm reduction, 1968–1976 . In P. G. Erickson , D. M. Riley , Y. W. Cheung , & P. A. O'Hare Harm reduction: A new direction for drug policies and programs . Toronto : University of Toronto Press .
  • Crawford , V. , Crome , I. B. and Clancy , C. 2003 . Co-existing problems of mental health and substance misuse (dual diagnosis): A literature review . Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy , 10 : S1 – S74 .
  • Degenhardt , L. and Hall , W. 2001 . The association between psychosis and problematic drug use among Australian adults: Findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being . Psychological Medicine , 31 : 659 – 668 .
  • Degenhardt , L. , Hall , W. and Lynskey , M. 2000 . Cohort trends in the age of initiation of drug use in Australia . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health , 24 : 421 – 426 .
  • Donnelly , H. , Hall , W. and Christie , P. 2000 . The effects of the Cannabis Expiation Notice system on the prevalence of cannabis use in South Australia: Evidence from the National Drug Strategy Household Surveys 1985–95 . Drug and Alcohol Review , 19 : 265 – 269 .
  • Drugscope . 2005 . Cannabis reclassification . Retrieved November 29, 2008, from www.drugscope.org.uk/uploads/homepage/documents/cannabis.htm .
  • Ellickson , P. H. , Martineo , S. C. and Collins , R. L. 2004 . Marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood: Multiple developmental trajectories and their associated outcomes . Health Psychology , 23 : 299 – 307 .
  • Ellison , G. 2001 . Young people, crime, policing and victimisation in Northern Ireland , Belfast : Institute of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Queens University of Belfast .
  • ElSohly , M. A. , Ross , S. A. , Mehmedic , Z. , Arafat , R. , Yi , B. and Banahan , B. F. 2000 . Potency trends of D9THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated marijuana from 1980–97 . Journal of Forensic Sciences , 45 : 24 – 30 .
  • European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) . 2003 . The state of the drugs problem in the acceding and candidate countries to the European Union. Annual report 2003 . Luxembourg : Office of the Official Publications of the European Communities .
  • Farrell , M. and Taylor , E. 1994 . “ Drug and alcohol use and misuse ” . In Child psychiatry: Modern approaches , Edited by: Rutter , M. , Taylor , E. and Hersov , L. 197 – 220 . Oxford : Blackwell Science .
  • Fergusson , D. M. , Boden , J. M. and Horwood , L. J. 2006 . Cannabis use and other illicit drug use: Testing the cannabis gateway hypothesis . Addiction , 101 : 556 – 569 .
  • Fergusson , D. J. M. , Horwood , L. J. and Ridder , E. M. 2005 . Tests of causal linkages between cannabis use and psychotic symptoms . Addiction , 100 : 354 – 366 .
  • Fergusson , D. M. and Horwood , L. J. 1997 . Early onset cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in young adults . Addiction , 92 ( 3 ) : 279
  • Fligiel , S. E. G. , Roth , M. D. , Kleerup , E. C. , Barsky , S. H. , Simmons , M. S. and Tashkin , D. P. 1997 . Tracheobronchial histopathology in habitual smokers of cocaine, marijuana and/or tobacco . Chest , 112 : 319 – 326 .
  • Fulton , K. , Short , M. , Harvey-Smith , D. , Rushe , T. and Mulholand , C . 2008 . The Northern Ireland early onset psychosis study: Phenomenology and co-morbidity in the first 25 cases . Child Care in Practice , 14 ( 2 ) : 193 – 206 .
  • Goulden , C. and Sondhi , A. 2001 . At the margins: Drug use by vulnerable young people in the 1998/99 Youth Lifestyles Survey (Home Office Research Study 228) , London : Home Office .
  • Green & Ritter . 2000 . Marijuana use and depression . Journal of Health and Social Behaviour , 41 , 40 – 49 .
  • Guardian Unlimited Online . (2005, May 4) .
  • Hall , W. 2006 . The mental health risks of adolescent cannabis use . Public Library of Science Medicine , 3 ( 2 ) : e39
  • Hall , W. and Babor , T. F. 2000 . Cannabis use and public health: Assessing the burden . Addiction , 95 : 485 – 490 .
  • Hall , W. , Johnston , L. and Donnelly , N. 1998 . “ The epidemiology of cannabis use and its consequences ” . In The health effects of cannabis , Edited by: Kalant , H. , Corrigal , W. , Hall , W. and Smart , R. Toronto : Addiction Research Foundation .
  • Hall , W. and acula , R. L. 2003 . Cannabis use and dependence: Public health and public policy , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Hall , W. , Solowij , N. and Lemon , J . 1994 . The health and psychological consequences of cannabis use , Canberra : Commonwealth Department of Human Services and Health .
  • Hall , W. and Swift , W. 2000 . The THC content of cannabis in Australia: Evidence and implications . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health , 24 ( 5 ) : 503 – 508 .
  • Health Promotion Agency for Northern Ireland . 1995 . Drugs: What young people know. Report on knowledge and awareness of drugs among 10–17 year olds in Northern Ireland . Belfast : Health Promotion Agency for Northern Ireland .
  • Health Promotion Agency for Northern Ireland . 1998 . The health behaviour of school children in Northern Ireland . Belfast : Health Promotion Agency for Northern Ireland .
  • Henquet , C. , Krabbendam , L. , Spauwen , J. , Kaplan , C. , Lieb , R. , Wittchen , H. and Os , J. 2005 . Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people . British Medical Journal , 330 : 11
  • Highet , G. 2004 . The role of cannabis in supporting young people's cigarette smoking: A qualitative exploration . Health Education Research , 19 : 635 – 643 .
  • Her Majesty's Sationary Office (HMSO) . 2005 . Cannabis reclassification (Reference Stat002/2005) .
  • Drugscope . 2005 . Cannabis reclassification . Retrieved November 29, 2008, from www.drugscope. org.uk/uploads/homepage/documents/cannabis.htm .
  • Hough , M. , Warburton , H. , Few , B. , May , T. , Man , L.-H. , Witton , J. and Turnball , P. J. 2003 . A growing market. The domestic cultivation of cannabis , York : Joseph Rowntree Foundation .
  • Jenkins , R. 2006 . Cannabis and young people. Reviewing the evidence , London : Jessica Kingsley .
  • Johns , A. 2001 . Psychiatric effects of cannabis . British Journal of Psychiatry , 178 : 116 – 122 .
  • Johnston , L. D. , O'Malley , P. M. and Bachman , J. G. 2003 . Monitoring the future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings 2002 (NIH Publication No. 04-556) , Rockville, MD : National Institute on Drug Abuse .
  • Johnston , L. D. , O'Malley , P. M. and Bachman , J. G. 1991 . rug use among American high school seniors, college students and young adults, 1975–1990 , Vol. 1 , Rockville, MD : National Institute on Drug Abuse .
  • Kandel , D. 1984 . Marijuana users in young adulthood . Archives of General Psychiatry , 41 : 200 – 209 .
  • Kandel , D. and Yamaguichi , K. 1993 . From beer to crack—developmental patterns of drug involvement . American Journal of Public Health , 83 : 851 – 855 .
  • Kandel , D. B. and Davies , M. 1992 . “ Progression to regular marijuana involvement: Phenomenology and risk factors for near daily use ” . In Vulnerability to drug abuse , Edited by: Glantz , M. and Pickens , R. Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
  • Korf , D. J. 2002 . Dutch coffee shops and trends in cannabis use . Addictive Behaviours , 27 : 851 – 866 .
  • Korf , D. J. , van der Woude , M. , Benschop , A. and Nabben , T. 2001 . Coffee shops, youth and tourism , Amsterdam : Rozenberg .
  • Lynskey , M. and Hall , W. 2000 . The effects of adolescent cannabis use on educational attainment: A review . Addiction , 95 ( 11 ) : 1621 – 1630 .
  • MacCoun , R. 1993 . Drugs and the law: A psychological analysis of drug prohibition . Psychological Bulletin , 113 : 497 – 512 .
  • MacCoun , R. , Model , K. , Phillips-Shockley , H. and Reuter , P. 1995 . “ Comparing drug policies in northern America and Western Europe ” . In “Policies and strategies to combat drugs in Europe , Edited by: Estievenart , G. Dordrecht, , the Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff .
  • MacCoun , R. and Reuter , P. 1997 . Interpreting Dutch cannabis policy: Reasoning by analogy in the legalisation debate . Science , 278 : 47 – 52 .
  • MacCoun , R. and Reuter , P. 2001 . Evaluating alternative cannabis regimes . British Journal of Psychiatry , 178 : 123 – 128 .
  • MacLeod , J. , Oakes , R. , Copello , A. , Crome , I. , Egger , M. Hickman , M. 2004 . The psychosocial consequences of use of cannabis and other illicit drugs: Systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies . Lancet , 363 : 1579 – 1588 .
  • May , T. , Duffy , M. , Warburton , H. and Hough , M. 2007 . Policing cannabis as a class C drug , York : Joseph Rowntree Foundation .
  • May , T. , Warburton , H. , Turnball , P. J. and Hough , M. 2002 . The policing of cannabis as a class C drug , York : Joseph Rowntree Foundation .
  • McCrystal , P. , Higgins , K. , Percy , A. and Thornton , M. 2005 . Adolescent substance abuse among young people excluded from school in Belfast . Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy , 12 : 101 – 113 .
  • McCrystal , P. , Percy , A. and Higgins , K. 2007 . Frequent cannabis use among 14/15 year olds in Northern Ireland . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 88 : 19 – 27 .
  • McIntosh , J. , MacDonald , F. and McKeganey , N. 2003 . Knowledge and perception of illegal drugs in a sample of pre-teenage children. Drugs: Education . Prevention and Policy , 10 : 331 – 344 .
  • Miller , P. and Plant , M. 1996 . Drinking, smoking and illicit drug use among 15 and 16 year olds in the United Kingdom . British Medical Journal , 313 : 394 – 397 .
  • Miller , P. and Plant , M. 2002 . Heavy cannabis use among UK teenagers: An exploration . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 65 : 235 – 242 .
  • Monshouwer , K. , Smit , F. , de Graaf , R. , van Os , J. and Vollebergh , W. 2005 . First cannabis use: Does onset shift to younger ages? Findings from 1988 to 2003 from the Dutch National School Survey on Substance Use . Addiction , 100 : 963 – 970 .
  • Murphy , C. J. A. , & Rose , S. 2007 . Drug misuse declared: Findings from the 2006/07 British crime survey . London : Home Office Statistical Bulletin . Retrieved November 29, 2008, from www.homeoffice.gov.uk .
  • Muster , D. 1973 . The American disease: Origins of narcotics control , New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
  • National Drug Monitor . 2001 . National Drug Monitor annual report 2001 . Utrecht : Bureau NDM .
  • Novins , D. K. and Mitchell , C. M. 1998 . Factors associated with marijuana use among American Indian adolescents . Addiction , 93 : 1693 – 1702 .
  • Pearson , G. and Shiner , M. 2002 . Rethinking the generation gap: Attitudes to illicit drugs among young people and adults . Criminal Justice , 2 : 71 – 86 .
  • Percy , A. , McAllister , S. , Higgins , K. , McCrystal , P. and Thornton , M. 2005 . Response consistency in young adolescents’ drug use self-reports: A recanting rate analysis . Addiction , 100 : 189 – 196 .
  • Police Foundation . 2000 . Drugs, and the law. Report of the independent inquiry into the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 . London : The Police Foundation .
  • Reinarman , C. , Cohen , D. A. and Kaal , H. L. 2004 . The limited relevance of drug policy: Cannabis in Amsterdam and San Francisco . American Journal of Public Health , 94 : 836 – 842 .
  • Resnick , M. D. , Bearman , P. S. , Blum , R. W. , Bauman , K. E. , Harris , K. M. Jones , J. 1997 . Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health . Journal of the American Medical Association , 278 : 823 – 832 .
  • Rey , J. M. , Sawyer , R. B. , Patton , G. and Lynskey , M. 2002 . Mental health of teenagers who use cannabis . The British Journal of Psychiatry , 120 : 216 – 221 .
  • Robson , P. 1995 . Forbidden drugs: Understanding drugs and why people take them , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
  • Roe , S. 2005 . Drug misuse declared: Findings from the 2004/05 British crime survey (Home Office Statistical Bulletin 16/05) , London : HMSO .
  • Saverland , W. and Bray , D. 1980 . American trends in cannabis use among states with different and changing legal regimes , Ottawa, , Canada : Bureau of Tobacco and Control and Biometrics, Health and Welfare .
  • Sherrill , D. L. , Krzyanowski , J. W. , Bloom , J. W. and Lebowitz , M. D. 1991 . Respiratory effects of non-tobacco cigarettes: A longitudinal study in general population . International Journal of Epidemiology , 20 : 132 – 137 .
  • Single , E. , Christie , P. and Ali , R. 2000 . The impact of cannabis decriminalisation in Australia and the United States . Journal of Public Health Policy , 21 : 157 – 186 .
  • Smith , N. T. 2002 . A review of the published literature into cannabis withdrawal symptoms in human users . Addiction , 97 : 621 – 632 .
  • Sridar , K. S. , Raub , W. A. , Weatherby , N. L. , Metsch , L. R. , Surratt , H. L. Inciardi , J. A. 1994 . Possible role of marijuana smoking as a carcinogen in the development of lung cancer at an early age . Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 26 : 285 – 288 .
  • Swaim , R. C. , Beauvais , F. , Chavez , E. L. and Oetting , E. R. 1997 . The effect of school dropout rates on estimates of adolescent substance use among three racial/ethnic groups . American Journal of Public Health , 87 : 51 – 55 .
  • Tashkin , D. P. 1993 . Is frequent marijuana smoking harmful to health? . Western Journal of Medicine , 158 : 635 – 637 .
  • Tashkin , D. P. , Fligiel , S. , Wu , T. C. , Gong , H. , Barbers , R. G. Coulson , A. H. 1990 . “ Effects of habitual use of marijuana and/or cocaine on the lung ” . In Research on findings on smoking of abused substances (National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph 99) , Edited by: Chiang , C. N. and Hawks , R. L. Rockville, MD : National Institute on Drug Abuse .
  • Taylor , D. R. , Poulton , R. , Moffitt , T. E. , Ramankutty , P. and Sears , M. R. 2000 . The respiratory effects of cannabis dependence in young adults . Addiction , 95 ( 11 ) : 1669 – 1677 .
  • The Daily Telegraph . (2006, June 27) . UK too soft on cannabis dangers .
  • Thomas , H. 1996 . A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis use . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 42 : 201 – 207 .
  • Thornicroft , G. 1990 . Cannabis and psychosis: Is there epidemiological evidence for association? . British Journal of Psychiatry , 157 : 25 – 33 .
  • United Kingdom Anti-Drugs Co-Ordination Unit . 1998 . Tackling drugs to build a better Britain . London : Cabinet Office .
  • United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . 2006 . World drug report .
  • van Os , J. , Bak , M. , Hanssen , M. , Bijl , R. V. , de Fraaf , R. and Verdoux , H. 2002 . Cannabis use and psychosis: A longitudinal population-based study . American Journal of Epidemiology , 156 : 319 – 327 .
  • Verdoux , H. , Ginde , C. , Sorbora , F. , Tournier , M. and Swendsen , J. 2003 . Effcets of cannabis and psychosis vulnerability in daily life: An experience sampling study . Psychological Medicine , 33 : 3 – 6 .
  • Warburton , H. , May , T. and Hough , M. 2005 . Looking the other way. The impact of reclassifying cannabis on police, arrests and informal action in England and Wales . British Journal of Criminology , 45 : 113 – 128 .
  • Wibberley , C. and Price , J. 2000 . Young people's drug use: Facts and feelings—implications for the normalisation debate. Drugs: Education . Prevention and Policy , 7 : 147 – 162 .
  • Wu , T. C. , Tashkin , D. P. , Djahed , D. and Rose , J. E. 1988 . Pulmonary hazards of smoking marijuana as compared with tobacco . New England Journal of Medicine , 318 : 341 – 351 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.