Attitudes towards women managers: Development and validation of a new measure with Turkish samples

References

• Ajzen , I. 2001 . Nature and operation of attitudes . Annual Review of Psychology , 52 ( 1 ) : 27 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajzen , I. and Fishbein , M. 2005 . “ The influence of attitudes on behavior ” . In The handbook of attitudes , Edited by: Albarracín , D. , Johnson , B. T. and Zanna , M. P. 173 – 221 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Allen , D. G. , Weeks , K. P. and Moffitt , K. R. 2005 . Turnover intentions and voluntary turnover: The moderating roles of self-monitoring, locus of control, proactive personality, and risk aversion . Journal of Applied Psychology , 90 ( 5 ) : 980 – 990 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allport , G. W. 1954 . The nature of prejudice , Cambridge , MA : Perseus Books .
   Google Scholar
• Arat , Z. F. 1999 . Rethinking modernity and national identity in Turkey . Journal of Developing Areas , 33 ( 2 ) : 297 – 299 .
   Google Scholar
• Aycan , Z. 2004 . Key success factors for women in management in Turkey . Applied Psychology: An International Review , 53 ( 3 ) : 453 – 477 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aycan , Z. 2006 . “ Paternalism: Towards conceptual refinement and operationalization ” . In Scientific advances in indigenous psychologies: Empirical, philosophical, and cultural contributions , Edited by: Yang , K. S. , Hwang , K. K. and Kim , U. 445 – 466 . London , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Aycan , Z. , Ayman , R. , Bardoel , A. , Pande , D. , Drach-Zahavy , A. Hammer , L. Cross-cultural approach to work-family conflict: A ten-country investigation . Paper presented at Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Conference . May , Chicago , USA.
   Google Scholar
• Blake , R. R. and Mouton , J. J. 1969 . Building a dynamic corporation through grid organizational development , Reading , MA : Addison-Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Bolak-Boratav , H. 2009 . “ Values and attitudes of young people in urban Turkey: Further test of Schwartz' theory of values and Kağıtçıbaşı's model of family change ” . In Cultural perspectives on human development: Essays in honor of Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı , Edited by: Bekman , S. and Koç , A. 263 – 283 . Boston , MA : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bowen , C. , Wu , Y. , Hwang , C. and Scherer , R. 2007 . Holding up half the sky? Attitudes towards women as managers in the People's Republic of China . International Journal of Human Resource Management , 18 ( 2 ) : 268 – 283 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenner , O. C. , Tomkiewicz , J. and Schein , V. E. 1989 . The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics revisited . Academy of Management Journal , 32 ( 3 ) : 662 – 669 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cammann , C. , Fichman , M. , Jenkins , G. and Klesh , J. 1983 . “ Assessing the attitudes and perceptions of organizational members ” . In Assessing organizational change: A guide to methods, measures, and practices , Edited by: Seashore , S. 71 – 119 . New York , NY : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Catalyst . 2004 . The bottom line: Connecting corporate performance and gender diversity (Research Rep. No. D58). New York, USA
   Google Scholar
• Cordano , M. , Owen , C. L. , Scherer , R. F. and Munoz , C. G. 2002 . Expanding opportunities for cross-cultural research: The development of a Spanish Women As Managers Scale . International Journal of Management , 19 ( 2 ) : 290 – 299 .
   Google Scholar
• Cordano , M. , Scherer , R. F. and Owen , C. L. 2003 . Dimensionality of the Women As Managers Scale: Factor congruency among three samples . Journal of Social Psychology , 143 ( 1 ) : 141 – 143 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortis , R. and Cassar , W. 2005 . Perceptions of and about women as managers: Investigating job involvement, self-esteem and attitudes . Women in Management Review , 20 ( 3 ) : 149 – 164 .
   Google Scholar
• Crino , M. D. , White , M. C. and DeSanctis , G. L. 1981 . A comment on the dimensionality and reliability of the Women As Managers Scale (WAMS) . Academy of Management Journal , 24 ( 4 ) : 866 – 876 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crino , M. D. , White , M. C. and Looney , S. W. 1985 . In the eye of the beholder: A reply to Ilgen and Moore . Academy of Management Journal , 28 ( 4 ) : 950 – 954 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowne , D. P. and Marlowe , D. 1960 . A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology . Journal of Consulting Psychology , 24 ( 4 ) : 349 – 354 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Davidson , M. J. and Burke , R. 2004 . Women in management worldwide: Progress and prospects , Aldershot , UK : Ashgate .
   Google Scholar
• Deal , J. J. and Stevenson , M. A. 1998 . Perception of female and male managers in the 1990s: Plus ca change …  . Sex Roles , 38 ( 3–4 ) : 287 – 300 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deforges , D. M. , Lord , C. G. , Ramsey , S. L. , Mason , J. A. , van Leeuwen , M. D. , West , S. C. and Lepper , M. R. 1991 . Effects of structured cooperative contact on changing negative attitudes toward stigmatized social groups . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 ( 4 ) : 531 – 544 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Vellis , R. F. 2003 . Scale development: Theory and applications , London , UK : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Dubno , P. 1985 . Attitudes toward women executives: A longitudinal approach . Academy of Management Journal , 28 ( 1 ) : 235 – 239 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubno , P. , Costas , J. , Cannon , H. , Wankel , C. and Emin , H. 1979 . An empirically keyed scale for measuring managerial attitudes toward women executives . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 3 ( 4 ) : 357 – 364 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly , A. H. 2007 . Female leadership advantage and disadvantage: Resolving the contradictions . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 31 ( 1 ) : 1 – 12 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly , A. H. and Carli , L. L. 2003 . Finding gender advantage and disadvantage: Systematic research integration is the solution . Leadership Quarterly , 14 ( 6 ) : 851 – 859 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly , A. H. and Karau , S. J. 2002 . Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders . Psychological Review , 109 ( 3 ) : 573 – 598 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Economist . 2010 . “ We did it! The rich world's quiet revolution: Women are gradually taking over the workplace. 7–11 ” . 2–8 January
   Google Scholar
• Eker , S. 1989 . Organizational and personal correlates of attitudes toward women as managers: A study in Turkey , Istanbul : Institute for Graduate Studies in Social Sciences, Bogazici University . Unpublished MA thesis
   Google Scholar
• Emrich , C. G. , Denmark , F. L. and Den Hartog , D. N. 2004 . “ Cross-cultural differences in gender egalitarianism: Implications for societies, organizations and leaders ” . In Cultures, leadership and organizations: A 62 nation GLOBE study (pp. 343–386) , Edited by: House , R. J. , Hanges , P. J. , Javidan , M. , Dorfman , P. W. and Gupta , V. Vol. 1 , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Ezell , H. D. , Odewahn , C. A. and Sherman , J. D. 1980 . Perceived competence of women in public human service organizations: A comparative view . Journal of Management , 6(2), : 134 – 144 .
   Google Scholar
• Ezell , H. F. , Odewahn , C. A. and Sherman , J. D. 1981 . Being supervised by a woman: Does it make a difference? . Academy of Management Conference Proceedings , : 391 – 395 .
   Google Scholar
• Ferrary , M. 2010 . Les femmes influencent-elles les performances des entreprises? Une étude des entreprises du CAC40 sur la periode 2002–2006 . Travail, Genre et Sociétés , 23 ( 1 ) : 181 – 190 .
   Google Scholar
• Fiske , S. T. and Dépret , E. 1996 . “ Control, interdependence and power: Understanding social cognition in its social context ” . In European review of social psychology , Edited by: Stroebe , W. and Hewstone , M. Vol. 7 , 31 – 61 . New York , NY : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Fleishman , E. A. 1953 . Leadership climate and human relations training . Personnel Psychology , 6 ( 3 ) : 205 – 222 .
   Google Scholar
• Gorman , E. H. 2005 . Gender stereotypes, same-gender preferences, and organizational variation in the hiring of women: Evidence from law firms . American Sociological Review , 70 ( 4 ) : 702 – 728 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guiso , L. , Monte , F. , Sapienza , P. and Zingales , L. 2008 . Culture, gender and math . Science , 320 : 1164 – 1165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gündüz-Hoşgör , A. 1997 . Development and women's employment status: Evidence from the Turkish Republic 1923–1990 , London , Canada : University of Western Ontario . (Unpublished PhD thesis)
   Google Scholar
• Harzing , A. W. 2006 . Response styles in cross-national survey research: A 26-country study . International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management , 6 ( 3 ) : 243 – 266 .
   Google Scholar
• Heilman , M. E. 1983 . “ Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model ” . In Research in organizational behavior , Edited by: Staw , B. M. and Cumming , L. L. Vol. 5 , 269 – 298 . Greenwich , CT : JAI Press .
   Google Scholar
• Heilman , M. E. 2001 . Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder . Journal of Social Issues , 57 ( 4 ) : 657 – 674 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ilgen , D. R. and Moore , C. F. 1983 . When reason fails: A comment on the reliability and dimensionality of the WAMS . Academy of Management Journal , 26 ( 3 ) : 535 – 540 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inan , A. 1967 . Kadinin Sosyal Hayatini Tetkik Kurumu: Aylik Konferanslar [Studying women's social life] , Ankara , Turkey : Ayyildiz Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kabasakal , H. , Aycan , Z. and Karakas , F. 2004 . “ Women in management in Turkey ” . In Women in management worldwide: Progress and prospects , Edited by: Davidson , M. J. and Burke , R. 273 – 294 . Aldershot , UK : Ashgate .
   Google Scholar
• Kabasakal , H. , Aycan , Z. , Karakas , F. and Maden , C. in press . “ Women in management in Turkey ” . In Women in management worldwide: Progress and prospects , Edited by: Davidson , M. J. and Burke , R. UK : Ashgate .
   Google Scholar
• Kagitcibasi , C. 2007 . Family, self and human development across cultures: Theory and applications , UK : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd .
   Google Scholar
• Kanungo , R. N. and Jaeger , A. M. 1990 . “ Introduction: The need for indigenous management in developing countries ” . In Management in developing countries , Edited by: Jaeger , A. M. and Kanungo , R. N. 1 – 23 . London , UK : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Leaper , C. 2000 . “ The social construction and socialization of gender during development ” . In Toward a feminist developmental psychology , Edited by: Miller , P. H. and Scholnick , E. K. 127 – 152 . New York , NY : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Lyness , K. S. and Heilman , M. E. 2006 . When fit is fundamental: Performance evaluations and promotions of upper-level female and male managers . Journal of Applied Psychology , 91 ( 4 ) : 777 – 785 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyness , K. S. and Terrazas , J. M. B. 2006 . “ Women in management: An update on their progress and persistent challenges ” . In International review of industrial and organizational psychology , Edited by: Hodgkinson , G. P. and Ford , J. K. Vol. 21 , 267 – 294 . Chichester , UK : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Maccoby , E. E. 1998 . The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Martell , R. F. and DeSmet , A. L. 2001 . A diagnostic-ration approach to measuring beliefs about the leadership abilities of male and female managers . Journal of Applied Psychology , 86 ( 6 ) : 1223 – 1231 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mihail , D. 2006 . Gender-based stereotypes in the workplace: The case of Greece . Equal Opportunities International , 25 ( 5 ) : 373 – 388 .
   Google Scholar
• Moore , D. P. 2002 . “ Boundaryless transitions: Global entrepreneurial women challenge career concepts ” . In Advancing women in management , Edited by: Burke , R. J. and Nelson , D. L. 245 – 261 . Oxford , UK : Blackwell Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Morrison , A. M. , White , R. P. and van Velsor , E. 1987 . Breaking the glass ceiling: Can women reach the top of America's largest corporations? , Reading , MA : Addison-Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Owen , C. L. , Scherer , R. F. , Sincoff , M. Z and Cordano , M. 2003 . Perceptions of women as managers in Chile and United States . Mid-American Journal of Business , 18 ( 2 ) : 43 – 50 .
   Google Scholar
• Pereira , B. F. 1978 . Organizational and personal correlates of attitudes toward women as managers . Indian Journal of Social Work , 39 ( 3 ) : 287 – 296 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters , L. H. , Terborg , J. R. and Taynor , J. 1974 . Women as Managers Scale (WAMS): A measure of attitudes toward women in management positions (MS. No. 585) . JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology , 4 : 27
   Google Scholar
• Powell , G. N. 1999 . “ Reflections on the glass ceiling: Recent trends and future prospects ” . In Handbook of Gender and Work , Edited by: Powell , G. N. Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Powell , G. N. and Butterfield , D. A. 1989 . The “good manager”: Did androgyny fare better in the 1980s? . Group and Organization Studies , 14 ( 2 ) : 216 – 233 .
   Google Scholar
• Powell , G. N. , Butterfield , D. A. and Parent , J. D. 2002 . Gender and managerial stereotypes: Have the times changed? . Journal of Management , 28 : 177 – 193 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Punnett , B. J. 2004 . “ Management in developing countries ” . In The handbook of global management , Edited by: Maznevski , M. , Mendenhall , M. and Lane , H. 387 – 405 . London , UK : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Rudman , L. A. and Kilianski , S. E. 2000 . Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 26 ( 11 ) : 1315 – 1328 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan , M. K. and Haslam , S. A. 2005 . The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions . British Journal of Management , 16 : 81 – 90 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan , M. K. , Haslam , S. A. and Postmes , T. 2007 . Reactions to the glass cliff: Gender differences in the explanations for the precariousness of women's leadership positions . Journal of Organizational Change Management , 20 ( 2 ) : 182 – 197 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sashkin , M. 1979 . A review of E.B.Yost and T.T.Herbert's attitudes toward women as managers (ATWAM) . Group and Organization Studies , 4 ( 4 ) : 509 – 512 .
   Google Scholar
• Schein , V. E. 1973 . The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics . Journal of Applied Psychology , 57 ( 2 ) : 95 – 100 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schein , V. E. 2001 . A global look at psychological barriers to women's progress in management . Journal of Social Issues , 57 ( 4 ) : 675 – 688 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schein , V. E. 2007 . Women in management: Reflections and projections . Women in Management Review , 22 ( 1 ) : 6 – 18 .
   Google Scholar
• Schein , V. E. and Mueller , R. 1992 . Sex role stereotyping and requisite management characteristics: A cross cultural look . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 13 ( 5 ) : 439 – 447 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schein , V. E. , Mueller , R. , Lituchy , T. and Liu , J. 1996 . Think manager–think male: A global phenomenon? . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 17 ( 1 ) : 33 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt , N. , Clause , C. and Pulakos , E. 1996 . “ Subgroup differences associates with different measures of some common job relevant constructs ” . In International review of industrial and organizational psychology , Edited by: Cooper , C. L. and Robertson , I. T. 115 – 139 . New York , NY : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Schriesheim , C. A. , Cogliser , C. C. , Neider , L. L. , Fleishman , E. A. and James , L. 1998 . “ The Ohio State model ” . In Leadership—The multiple-level approaches: Classical and new wave , Edited by: Dansereau , E and Yammarino , E. J. Vol. 24 , 3 – 72 . Stanford , CT : JAI Press . Monographs in Organizational Behavior and Industrial Relations
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz , L. K. and Simmons , J. P. 2001 . Contact quality and attitudes toward the elderly . Educational Gerontology , 27 ( 2 ) : 127 – 137 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarz , N. 2008 . “ Attitude measurement ” . In Attitudes and attitude change , Edited by: Crano , W. D. and Prislin , R. 41 – 60 . New York , NY : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sczesny , S. 2003 . A closer look beneath the surface: Various facets of the think manager–think-male stereotype . Sex Roles , 49 : 353 – 363 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staines , G. , Tavris , C. and Jayaratne , C. 1974 . The queen bee syndrome . Psychology Today , 7 : 55 – 60 .
   Google Scholar
• Steiger , J. H. 1980 . Tests for comparing elements of a correlation matrix . Psychological Bulletin , 87 ( 2 ) : 245 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terborg , J. R. , Peters , L. H. , Ilgen , D. R. and Smith , F. 1977 . Organizational and personal correlates of attitudes toward women as managers . Academy of Management Journal , 20 ( 1 ) : 89 – 100 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomkiewicz , J. and Brenner , O. C. 1982 . Organizational dilemma: Sex differences in attitudes toward women held by future managers . Personnel Administrator , 27 ( 7 ) : 62 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Tomkievicz , J. , Frankel , R. , Adeyemi-Bello , T. and Sagan , M. 2004 . A comparative analysis of the attitudes towards women managers in US and Poland . Cross Cultural Management , 11 ( 2 ) : 58 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Treas , J. and Widmer , E. D. 2000 . Married women's employment over the life course: Attitudes in cross-national perspective . Social Forces , 78 ( 4 ) : 1409 – 1436 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Twenge , J. M. 1997 . Attitudes toward women, 1970–1995: A meta-analysis . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 21 ( 1 ) : 35 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanous , J. P. , Reichers , A. P. and Hudy , M. J. 1997 . Overall job satisfaction: How good are single-item measures? . Journal of Applied Psychology , 82 ( 2 ) : 247 – 252 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willemsen , T. M. 2002 . Gender typing of the successful manager—A stereotype reconsidered . Sex Roles , 46 ( 11/12 ) : 385 – 391 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , C. 1992 . The Glass Escalator: Hidden advantages for men in the female professions . Social Problems , 39 ( 3 ) : 253 – 267 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoder , J. 2001 . Making leadership work more effectively for women . Journal of Social Issues , 57 ( 4 ) : 815 – 828 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yost , E. B. and Herbert , T. T. 1985 . “ Attitudes Toward Women As Managers (ATWAM) ” . In The 1985 annual: Developing human resources (pp. 87–108) , Edited by: Goodstein , L. and Pfeiffer , J. W. University Associates. San Diego, Ca: Pfeiffer & Company .
   Google Scholar
• Yukl , G. 1998 . Leadership in organizations , (4th ed.) , Upper Saddle River , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar