Artificial Intelligence and Cross-Domain Warfare: Balance of Power and Unintended Escalation

References

• Altmann, Jürgen, and Frank Sauer. 2017. “Autonomous Weapon Systems and Strategic Stability.” Survival 59 (5): 117–142.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ars Technica. September 16, 2022. Twitter Pranksters Derail GPT-3 Bot with Newly Discovered “Prompt Injection” Hack.
   Google Scholar
• Bode, Ingvild, and Hendrik Huelss. 2022. Autonomous Weapons Systems and International Norms. Montreal, Quebec: McGill Queen University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bonfanti, Matteo. 2022. “Artificial Intelligence and the Offence-Defense Balance in Cyber Security.” In Cyber Security Politics: Socio-Technological Transformations and Political Fragmentation, edited by Myriam Dunn Cavelty, and Andreas Wenger, 64–79. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bostrom, Nick. 2014. Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boucher, Nicholas, Ilia Shumailov, Ross Anderson, and Nicolas Papernot. 2021. “Bad Characters: Imperceptible NLP Attacks”. https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.09898.
   Google Scholar
• Breaking Defense. January 12, 2021. ‘A 20th Century Commander Will Not Survive’: Why The Military Needs AI”.
   Google Scholar
• Buchanan, Ben. 2017. The Cybersecurity Dilemma: Hacking, Trust and Fear Between Nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Buijsman, Stefan, and Herman Veluwenkamp. 2022. “Spotting When Algorithms Are Wrong.” Minds and Machines. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-022-09591-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford, Kate. 2021. The Atlas of AI: Power, Politics, and the Planetary Costs of Artificial Intelligence. New Haven: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Csengeri, Janos. 2021. “Multi-Domain Operations – A New Approach in Warfare?” Security & Future 5 (3): 78–80.
   Google Scholar
• CSO. April 1, 2022. Russia-Linked Cyberattacks on Ukraine: A Timeline”.
   Google Scholar
• DARKReading. November 9, 2021. Why Self-Learning AI Is Changing the Paradigm of ICS Security”.
   Google Scholar
• Deeks, Ashley. 2020. “High-Tech International Law.” The George Washington Law Review 88: 574–653.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defense News. May 11, 2022. US and Allies Blame Russia for Viasat Hack Ahead of Ukraine Invasion”.
   Google Scholar
• The Economist. September 7, 2021. “Artificial Intelligence Is Changing Every Aspect of War”.
   Google Scholar
• European Science-Media Hub. July 7, 2021. A Scientist’s Opinion: Interview with Christopher Whyte about the AI-Cyber Nexus.
   Google Scholar
• Forensics Colleges. 2023. “Machine Learning and AI in Cybersecurity: Expert Interview”. https://www.forensicscolleges.com/blog/ai-in-cybersecurity. As of May 20, 2023.
   Google Scholar
• Gartzke, Erik. 2021. “Blood and Robots: How Remotely Piloted Vehicles and Related Technologies Affect the Politics of Violence.” Journal of Strategic Studies 44 (7): 983–1013.
   Google Scholar
• Gill, Amandeep Singh. 2019. “Artificial Intelligence and International Security: The Long View.” Ethics & International Affairs 33 (2): 169–179.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray, Maggie, and Amy Ertan. 2021. “Artificial Intelligence and Autonomy in the Military: An Overview of NATO Member States’ Strategies and Deployment” (CCDCOE, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• The Guardian. 2021a. “Rohingya sue Facebook for £150bn over Myanmar genocide” (December 6, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• The Guardian. 2021b. “South Korean AI Chatbot Pulled from Facebook after Hate Speech Towards Minorities” (January 13, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Guembe, Blessing, et al. 2022. “The Emerging Threat of Ai-driven Cyber Attacks: A Review.” Applied Artificial Intelligence 36 (1): 2037254 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaven, Will Douglas. October 23, 2020. How to Make a Chatbot that Isn’t Racist or Sexist”.
   Google Scholar
• Holland, Arthur. 2021. “Known Unknowns: Data Issues and Military Autonomous Systems” (United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, May 17, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Horowitz, Michael. 2019. “When Speed Kills: Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems, Deterrence and Stability.” Journal of Strategic Studies 42 (6): 764–788.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huelss, Hendrik. 2022. “The New Fog of War: Algorithms, Computer Vision, and Weapon Systems” Autonorms Research Article, https://www.autonorms.eu/the-new-fog-of-war-algorithms-computer-vision-and-weapon-systems/.
   Google Scholar
• Industrial Cybersecurity Pulse. July 30, 2021. “The Role of AI in Cybersecurity: Expert Interview Series, David Masson, Darktrace”.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobsen, Jeppe, and Tobias Liebetrau. 2023. “Artificial Intelligence and Military Superiority.” In Artificial Intelligence and International Conflict in Cyberspace, edited by Fabio Cristiano, Dennis Broeders, François Delerue, Frédérick Douzet, and Aude Géry, 135–156. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, James. 2021a. “‘Catalytic Nuclear War’ in the Age of Artificial Intelligence & Autonomy: Emerging Military Technology and Escalation Risk Between Nuclear-Armed States.” Journal of Strategic Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2020.1867541.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, James. 2021b. “Inadvertent Escalation in the Age of Intelligence Machines: A new Model for Nuclear Risk in the Digital age.” European Journal of International Security 7 (3): 337–359.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, James. 2021c. Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Warfare: The USA, China, and Strategic Stability. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Katagiri, Nori. 2021. “Why International Law and Norms Do Little in Preventing Non-State Cyber Attacks.” Journal of Cybersecurity 7 (1): 1–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katagiri, Nori. 2022. “Two Explanations for the Paucity of Cyber-Military, Cross-Domain Operations.” Journal of Cybersecurity 8 (1): 1–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelleher, John. 2019. Deep Learning. Boston, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kello, Lucas. 2021. “Cyber Legalism: Why It Fails and What to Do About It.” Journal of Cybersecurity 7 (1): 1–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keuhl, Daniel. 2009. “From Cyberspace to Cyberpower: Defining the Problem.” In Cyberpower and National Security, edited by Franklin Kramer, Stuart Starr, and Larry Wentz, 24–42. Dulles, VA: Potomac.
   Google Scholar
• Konaev, Margarita. October 29, 2019. “With AI, We’ll See Faster Fights, But Longer Wars.” War on the Rocks.
   Google Scholar
• Kostyuk, Nadiya, and Erik Gartzke. Summer 2022. “Why Cyber Dogs Have Yet to Bark Loudly in Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine.” Texas National Security Review 5 (3): 113–126.
   Google Scholar
• Kostyuk, Nadiya, and Yuri Zhukov. 2019. “Invisible Digital Front: Can Cyber Attacks Shape Battlefield Events?” Journal of Conflict Resolution 63 (2): 317–347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson, Erik. 2021. The Myth of Artificial Intelligence: Why Computers Can’t Think the Way We Do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Libicki, Martin. 2020. “Correlations Between Cyberspace Attacks and Kinetic Attacks.” In 12th International Conference on Cyber Conflict, 20/20 Vision: The Next Decade, edited by T. Jančárková, L. Lindström, M. Signoretti, I. Tolga, and G. Visky, 199–213. Tallinn: NATO CCDCOE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Lin, Herbert. 2021. Cyber Threats and Nuclear Weapons. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lindsay, Jon, and Erik Gartzke, eds. 2019. Cross-Domain Deterrence: Strategy in an Era of Complexity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lonergan, Erica, and Shawn Lonergan. 2022. “Cyber Operations, Accommodative Signaling, and the De-escalation of International Crises.” Security Studies 31 (1): 32–64.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louis-Jacques, Lyonette. 2008. “Gaps in International Legal Literature: A Skeptical Reappraisal.” Syracuse Journal of International Law and Commerce 35: 363–368.
   Google Scholar
• Matisek, Jahara, and Buddhika Jayamaha. 2022. Old and New Battlespaces: Society, Military Power, and War. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.
   Google Scholar
• Milley, Mark. March 29 2023. Statement of General Mark A. Milley, USA, 20th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Department of Defense, Budget Hearing.
   Google Scholar
• MIT Technology Review Insights. April 8, 2021. Preparing for AI-Enabled Cyberattacks.
   Google Scholar
• MIT Technology Review. July 7, 2022. Why Business Is Booming for Military AI Startups.
   Google Scholar
• Morgan, Forrest, et al. 2020. Military Applications of Artificial Intelligence: Ethical Concerns in an Uncertain World. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• The Next Web. July 11, 2019. “Fears of AI-Powered Hacking Are Misplaced as Criminals aRe Doing Fine Without It”.
   Google Scholar
• Nilsson, Nils. 2009. The Quest for Artificial Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Payne, Kenneth. 2018. Strategy, Evolution, and War: From Apes to Artificial Intelligence. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Perez, Louis. “Is Stuxnet the Next Skynet? Autonomous Cyber Capabilities as Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems.” In Artificial Intelligence and International Conflict in Cyberspace, edited by Fabio Cristiano, Dennis Broeders, François Delerue, Frédérick Douzet, and Aude Géry, 186–222. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Pollpeter, Kevin. 2015. “Chinese Writings on Cyberwarfare and Coercion.” In China and Cybersecurity: Espionage, Strategy, and Politics in the Digital Domain, edited by Jon Lindsay, Tai Ming Cheung, and Derek Reveron, 138–162. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schneier, Bruce. 2021. “The Coming AI Hackers” (The Cyber Project). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Kennedy School.
   Google Scholar
• Sharkey, Noel, et al. 2016. “Staying in the Loop: Human Supervisory Control of Weapons.” In Autonomous Weapons Systems: Law, Ethics, Policy, edited by Nehal Bhuta, 23–38. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma, Purabi, Kandarpa Kumar Sarma, and Nikos Mastorakis. 2020. “Artificial Intelligence Aided Electronic Warfare Systems – Recent Trends and Evolving Applications.” IEEE Access 8: 224761–224780. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3044453.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley-Lockman, Zoe, and Edward Hunter Christie. October 2021. “An Artificial Intelligence Strategy for NATO.” NATO Review. https://www.nato.int/docu/review/articles/2021/10/25/an-artificial-intelligence-strategy-for-nato/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• Teodorescu, Mike, and Xinyu Yao. 2021. “Machine Learning Fairness Is Computationally Difficult and Algorithmically Unsatisfactorily Solved.” 2021 IEEE High Performance Extreme Computing Conference (HPEC), Waltham, MA, USA, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/HPEC49654.2021.9622861.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. 2020. “Modernizing Arms Control: Exploring Responses to the Use of AI in Military Decision-Making.”
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Defense. June 8, 2018. Joint Publication 3-12: Cyberspace Operations.
   Google Scholar
• The Verge. October 24, 2017. “Facebook Apologizes after Wrong Translation Sees Palestinian Man Arrested for Posting ‘Good Morning’”.
   Google Scholar
• West, Sarah Myers. 2020. “Redistribution and Rekognition: A Feminist Critique of Algorithmic Fairness.” Catalyst 6 (2): 1–24.
   Google Scholar
• Whitten, Allison. December 7, 2021. “AI Researchers Fight Noise by Turning to Biology.” Quanta Magazine.
   Google Scholar