On the path to the future: mapping the notion of transparency in the EU regulatory framework for AI

References

• Alì, G. S., and R. Yu. 2021. “Artificial Intelligence Between Transparency and Secrecy: From the EC Whitepaper to the AIA and Beyond.” European Journal of Law and Technology 12 (3): 1.
   Google Scholar
• Ananny, M., and K. Crawford. 2018. “Seeing Without Knowing: Limitations of the Transparency Ideal and its Application to Algorithmic Accountability.” New Media & Society 20 (3): 973–989.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldwin, R., M. Cave, and M. Lodge. 2011. Understanding Regulation: Theory, Strategy, and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ball, C. 2009. “What Is Transparency?” Public Integrity 11 (4): 293–308. doi:https://doi.org/10.2753/PIN1099-9922110400.
   Google Scholar
• Black, J. 2005. “The Emergence of Risk-Based Regulation and the new Public Risk Management in the United Kingdom.” Public law 512–549.
   Google Scholar
• Black, J. 2010a. “The Role of Risk in Regulatory Processes.” In The Oxford Handbook of Regulation, edited by Robert Baldwin, Martin Cave, and Martin Lodge, 301–348. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Black, J. 2010b. “Risk-based Regulation: Choices, Practices and Lessons Being Learned.” In Risk and Regulatory Policy: Improving the Governance of Risk, edited by OECD, 185–224. Paris: OECD Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Black, J., and A. D. Murray. 2019. “Regulating AI and Machine Learning: Setting the Regulatory Agenda.” European Journal of Law and Technology 10 (3): 1–21.
   Google Scholar
• Brkan, M., and G. Bonnet. 2020. “Legal and Technical Feasibility of the GDPR’s Quest for Explanation of Algorithmic Decisions: Of Black Boxes, White Boxes and Fata Morganas.” European Journal of Risk Regulation 11 (1): 18–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buijze, A. 2013. “The Principle of Transparency in EU Law.” Diss., Uitgeverij BOXPress.
   Google Scholar
• Burrell, J. 2016. “How the Machine ‘Thinks’: Understanding Opacity in Machine Learning Algorithms.” Big Data & Society, 3 (1): 205395171562251. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951715622512.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casey, B., A. Farhangi, and R. Vogl. 2019. “Rethinking Explainable Machines: The GDPR’s ‘Right to Explanation’ Debate and the Rise of Algorithmic Audits in Enterprise.” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 34: 143–188. doi:https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38M32N986.
   Google Scholar
• Creyke, R. 2010. “'Soft Law' and Administrative Law: A New Challenge.” AIAL Forum 61: 15–22.
   Google Scholar
• Diakopoulos, N. 2016. “Accountability in Algorithmic Decision Making.” Communications of the ACM 59 (2): 56–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dignum, V. 2019. Responsible Artificial Intelligence – How to Develop and Use AI in a Responsible Way. Switzerland: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Dignum, V. 2021. “On the European AI Act: Acting Is Key.” LinkedIn. LinkedIn, June 23, 2021. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/european-ai-act-acting-key-virginia-dignum/.
   Google Scholar
• Doshi-Velez, F., and M. Kortz. 2017. Accountability of AI Under the Law: The Role of Explanation. Berkman Klein Center Working Group on Explanation and the Law, Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society working paper.
   Google Scholar
• Duval, A. 2021. “Explainable AI, the Key to Open ‘Black Boxes.’” Web log. Towards Data Science (blog), June 30, 2021. https://towardsdatascience.com/explainable-ai-the-key-to-open-black-boxes-4ad09e04d791.
   Google Scholar
• Ebers, M. 2021. "Standardizing AI-The Case of the European Commission’s Proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Act.” SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3900378.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, L., and M. Veale. 2017. “Slave to the Algorithm: Why a Right to an Explanation is Probably not the Remedy you are Looking for.” Duke L. & Tech. Rev 16: 18.
   Google Scholar
• Eijlander, P. 2005. "Possibilities and Constraints in the use of Self-Regulation and co-Regulation in Legislative Policy: Experiences in the Netherlands – Lessons to be Learned for the EU?”. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=959148.
   Google Scholar
• Eliantonio, M., and O. Stefan. 2018. “Soft Law Before the European Courts: Discovering a ‘Common Pattern’?.” Yearbook of European Law 37: 457–469. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/yel/yey017.
   Google Scholar
• Eubanks, V. 2018. Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ewald, F. 1991. “Insurance and Risk.” In The Foucault Effect, edited by Gragam Burchell, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller, 197–210. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Felzmann, H., E. F. Villaronga, C. Lutz, and A. Tamò-Larrieux. 2019. “Transparency you Can Trust: Transparency Requirements for Artificial Intelligence Between Legal Norms and Contextual Concerns.” Big Data & Society 6 (1): 2053951719860542.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fink, M. 2021. “The EU Artificial Intelligence Act and Access to Justice.” EU Law Live.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, E. 2010. Risk Regulation and Administrative Constitutionalism. Oxford: Hart.
   Google Scholar
• Floridi, Luciano, Josh Cowls, Monica Beltrametti, Raja Chatila, Patrice Chazerand, Virginia Dignum, Christoph Luetge, et al. 2018. “AI4People—An Ethical Framework for a Good AI Society: Opportunities, Risks, Principles, and Recommendations.” Minds and Machines 28 (4): 689–707. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-018-9482-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman, J. 1997. “Collaborative Governance in the Administrative State.” UCLA L. Rev 45: 1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaumond, E. 2021. Artificial Intelligence Act: What Is the European Approach for AI?” Web log. Lawfareblog (blog). https://www.lawfareblog.com/artificial-intelligence-act-what-european-approach-ai.
   Google Scholar
• Ghani, R. 2016. “You Say You Want Transparency and Interpretability?” Web log. Rayidghani (blog) http://www.rayidghani.com/2016/04/29/you-say-you-want-transparency-and-interpretability/.
   Google Scholar
• Goodman, B., and S. Flaxman. 2017. “European Union Regulations on Algorithmic Decision-Making and a ‘Right to Explanation.’” AI Magazine 38 (3 ): 50–57. doi:https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v38i3.2741.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hage, J. 2018. “What Is Legal Validity? Lessons from Soft law.” In Legal Validity and Soft Law, edited by P. Westerman, J. Hage, S. Kirste, and A Mackor, 19–45. Cham: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Hagemann, R., J. H. Skees, and A. Thierer. 2018. “Soft law for Hard Problems: The Governance of Emerging Technologies in an Uncertain Future.” Colo. Tech. LJ 17: 37.
   Google Scholar
• Hart, H., and L. Adolphus. 1957. “Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals.” Harvard Law Review 71: 593.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heald, D. 2012. “Transparency as an Instrumental Value.” In Transparency: The Key to Better Governance?, edited by Christopher Hood and David Heald, 59–73. Oxford: British Academy. British Academy Scholarship Online.
   Google Scholar
• Heald, D. 2012. “Varieties of Transparency.” In Transparency: The Key to Better Governance?, edited by Christopher Hood, and David Heald, 25–43. Oxford: British Academy. British Academy Scholarship Online.
   Google Scholar
• Hildebrandt, M., and S. Gutwirth. 2008. Profiling the European Citizen: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Hirsch, D. 2011. “The Law and Policy of Online Privacy: Regulation, Self-Regulation, or Co-Regulation.” Seattle University Law Review 34: 439.
   Google Scholar
• Kaminski, M. E. 2019. “The Right to Explanation, Explained.” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 34: 189.
   Google Scholar
• Kingsman, N., E. Kazim, M. Chaudhry, A. Hilliard, A. Koshiyama, R. Polle, G. Pavey, and U. Mohammed. 2021. “Public Sector AI Transparency Standard.” Available at SSRN 3986213.
   Google Scholar
• Klabbers, J. 1998. “The Undesirability of Soft law.” Nordic Journal of International Law 67: 381–391.
   Google Scholar
• Kroll, J., J. Huey, S. Barocas, E. W. Felten, J. R. Reidenberg, D. G. Robinson, and H. Yu. 2016. “Accountable Algorithms.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 165: 633.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, B. 2021. “In AI We Trust? Effects of Agency Locus and Transparency on Uncertainty Reduction in Human–Ai Interaction.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 26 (6): 384–402. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmab013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacCarthy, M., and K. Propp. 2021. “Machines Learn that Brussels Writes the Rules: The EU’s New AI Regulation.” Brookings.
   Google Scholar
• Marchant, G. 2019. “‘Soft Law’ Governance of Artificial Intelligence.” https://aipulse.org/soft-law-governance-of-artificial-intelligence/.
   Google Scholar
• Metzinger, T. 2019. “Ethics Washing Made in Europe.” Der Tagesspiegel, April 8, 2019. https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/eu-guidelines-ethics-washing-made-in-europe/24195496.html.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, Timothy. 2009. “Soft Law as Delegation.” Fordham International Law Journal 32 (3): 888.
   Google Scholar
• Mitnick, B. M. 1980. The Political Economy of Regulation. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• OFTEL. 1998. Second Submission to the Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee: Beyond the Telephone, the Television and the PC – Regulation of the Electronic Communications Industry. London.
   Google Scholar
• Ogus, A. 1994. Regulation: Legal Form and Economic Theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Opdebeek, I., and S. De Somer. 2016. “The Duty to Give Reasons in the European Legal Area: A Mechanism for Transparent and Accountable Administrative Decision-Making? A Comparison of Belgian, Dutch, French and EU Administrative Law.” Rocznik Administracji Publicznej 2: 97–148.
   Google Scholar
• Pasquale, F. 2016. The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms Behind Money and Information. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Prosser, T. 2008. “Self-regulation, co-Regulation and the Audio-Visual Media Services Directive.” Journal of Consumer Policy 31 (1): 99–113.
   Google Scholar
• Quirk, P. J. 1981. Industry Influence in Federal Regulatory Agencies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Reed, C., K. Grieman, and J. Early. 2021. “Non-Asimov Explanations Regulating AI through Transparency.” SSRN. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3970518.
   Google Scholar
• Reichel, J. 2021. “Openness and Transparency.” In The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Administrative Law, edited by Peter Cane, Herwig Hofmann, Ip Eric Chi Yeung, and Peter L. Lindseth, 935–956. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rouvroy, A., and Y. Poullet. 2009. “The Right to Informational Self-Determination and the Value of Self-Development: Reassessing the Importance of Privacy for Democracy.” Essay. In Reinventing Data Protection?, edited by Serge Gutwirth, Yyves Poullet, Paul De Hert, Cécile De Terwangne, and Sjaak Nouwt, 45–76. Dordrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Selbst, A. D., and J. Powles. 2017. “Meaningful Information and the Right to Explanation.” International Data Privacy Law 7 (4): 233–242. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipx022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senden, L. 2004. Soft Law in European Community Law. Vol 1. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Senden, L. 2005. “Soft law, Self-Regulation and co-Regulation in European law: Where do They Meet?” Electronic Journal of Comparative Law 9 (1): 1–27.
   Google Scholar
• Skelton, S. K. 2021. “Europe’s Proposed AI Regulation Falls Short on Protecting Rights.” ComputerWeekly.com. https://www.computerweekly.com/feature/Europes-proposed-AI-regulation-falls-short-on-protecting-rights.
   Google Scholar
• Smuha, N. A., E. Ahmed-Rengers, A. Harkens, W. Li, J. MacLaren, R. Piselli, and K. Yeung. 2021. “How the EU Can Achieve Legally Trustworthy AI: A Response to the European Commission’s Proposal for an Artificial Intelligence Act.” Available at SSRN.
   Google Scholar
• Stefan, O. 2012. “European Union Soft Law: New Developments Concerning the Divide Between Legally Binding Force and Legal Effects.” The Modern Law Review 75 (5): 879–893.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, R. B. 1988. “Regulation and the Crisis of Legalisation in the United States.” In Law as an Instrument of Economic Policy – Comparative and Critical Approaches, edited by Terence Daintith, 97–134. Berlin: De Gruyter.
   Google Scholar
• Stirling, A. 1998. “Risk at a Turning Point?” Journal of Risk Research 1 (2): 97–109. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/136698798377204.
   Google Scholar
• Stohl, C., M. Stohl, and P. M. Leonardi. 2016. “Digital age| Managing Opacity: Information Visibility and the Paradox of Transparency in the Digital age.” International Journal of Communication 10: 15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sulev, G. 2020. “Soft Law in EU Electronic Communications Regulation: A Bulgarian Case Stud .” European Papers 5 (3): 1555–1564.
   Google Scholar
• Teubner, G. 1987. Juridification of Social Spheres: A Comparative Analysis in the Areas of Labor, Corporate, Antitrust and Social Welfare Law. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110921472.
   Google Scholar
• Tollenaar, A. 2012. "Soft Law and Policy Rules in the Netherlands.” SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1904427
   Google Scholar
• Tridimas, T. 2006. The General Principles of EU Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijk, N., R. Gellert, and K. Rommetveit. 2016. “A Risk to a Right? Beyond Data Protection Risk Assessments.” Computer Law & Security Review 32 (2): 286–306.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veale, M., and F. Z. Borgesius. 2021. “Demystifying the Draft EU Artificial Intelligence Act – Analysing the Good, the bad, and the Unclear Elements of the Proposed Approach.” Computer Law Review International 22 (4): 97–112.
   Google Scholar
• Volpato, A. 2021. “‘Part of Eu Law’, but Only Partially: The Issue of the Accessibility of Harmonised Standards.” Web log. Maastrichtuniversity.nl (blog), October 15, 2021. https://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/blog/2021/10/%E2%80%9Cpart-eu-law%E2%80%9D-only-partially-issue-accessibility-harmonised-standards.
   Google Scholar
• von Eschenbach, W. J. 2021. “Transparency and the Black box Problem: Why we do not Trust AI.” Philosophy & Technology 34 (4): 1607–1622.
   Google Scholar
• Wachter, S., B. Mittelstadt, and L. Floridi. 2017. “Why a Right to Explanation of Automated Decision-Making Does not Exist in the General Data Protection Regulation.” International Data Privacy Law 7 (2): 76–99.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wade, W., and C. F. Forsyth. 2000. Administrative Law. 8th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Weller, A. 2019. “Challenges for Transparency.” https://arxiv.org/pdf/1708.01870.
   Google Scholar
• Westerman, P., J. Hage, S. Kirste, and A. R. Mackor, eds. 2018. Legal Validity and Soft Law. Vol. 122, 1–266. Cham: Springer
   Google Scholar
• Wischmeyer, T. 2020. “Artificial Intelligence and Transparency: Opening the Black box.” In Regulating Artificial Intelligence, edited by Thomas Wischmeyer, and Timo Rademacher. Cham: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Wynne, B. 2002. “Risk and Environment as Legitimatory Discourses of Technology: Reflexivity Inside out?” Current Sociology 50 (3): 459–477. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392102050003010.
   Google Scholar
• Zalnieriute, M., L. B. Moses, and G. Williams. 2019. “The Rule of law and Automation of Government Decision-Making.” The Modern Law Review 82 (3): 425–455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zerilli, J., A. Knott, J. Maclaurin, and C. Gavaghan. 2019. “Transparency in Algorithmic and Human Decision-Making: Is There a Double Standard?” Philosophy & Technology 32 (4): 661–683.
   Google Scholar