A moral or class divide for populist parties? ‘The people’ in the discourse of Podemos and Vox in Spain

References

• Abts, K., Dalle Mulle, E., van Kessel, S. & Michel, E. (2021) ‘The welfare agenda of the populist radical right in Western Europe: combining welfare chauvinism, producerism and populism’, Swiss Political Science Review, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 21–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akkerman, A., Zaslove, A. & Spruyt, B. (2017) ‘“We the people” or “We the peoples”? A comparison of support for the populist radical right and populist radical left in the Netherlands’, Swiss Political Science Review, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 377–403.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelucci, D. & Vittori, D. (2023) ‘Look where you’re going: the cultural and economic explanations of class voting decline’, West European Politics, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 122–147.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Askim, J., Karlsen, R. & Kolltveit, K. (2022) ‘Populists in government: normal or exceptional?’, Government and Opposition, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 728–748.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aslanidis, P. (2017) ‘Measuring populist discourse with semantic text analysis: an application on grassroots populist mobilization’, Quality & Quantity, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 1241–1263.
   Google Scholar
• Berman, S. (2021) ‘The causes of populism in the West’, Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 71–88.
   Google Scholar
• Bonikowski, B. & Gidron, N. (2016) ‘The populist style in American politics: presidential campaign discourse, 1952–1996’, Social Forces, vol. 94, no. 4, pp. 1593–1621.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Careja, R. & Harris, E. (2022) ‘Thirty years of welfare chauvinism research: findings and challenges’, Journal of European Social Policy, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 212–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castanho Silva, B., Schürmann, L. & Proksch, S. (2023) ‘Modulation of democracy: partisan communication during and after election campaigns’, British Journal of Political Science, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 1–16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cordero, G. & Simón, P. (2016) ‘Economic crisis and support for democracy in Europe’, West European Politics, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 305–325.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dassonneville, R. (2023) Voters Under Pressure. Group-Based Cross-Pressure and Electoral Volatility, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• De Cleen, B. & Glynos, J. (2021) ‘Beyond populism studies’, Journal of Language and Politics, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 178–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Vries, C. E. & Hobolt, S. B. (2020) ’Challenger parties and populism’, LSE Public Policy Review, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Evans, G., Stubager, R. & Egge Langsæther, P. (2022) ‘The conditional politics of class identity: class origins, identity and political attitudes in comparative perspective’, West European Politics, vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 1178–1205.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franze, J. (2017) ‘La trayectoria del discurso de Podemos: del antagonismo al agonismo’, Revista Española de Ciencia Política, vol. 44, no. 44, pp. 219–246.
   Google Scholar
• Galais, C. & Pérez-Rajó, J. (2023) ‘Populist radical right-wing parties and the assault on political correctness: the impact of Vox in Spain’, International Political Science Review, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 492–506.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gidron, N. & Hall, P. A. (2020) ‘Populism as a problem of social integration’, Comparative Political Studies, vol. 53, no. 7, pp. 1027–1059.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez, R. & Ramiro, L. (2022). Radical Left Voters in Western Europe. Routledge, London.
   Google Scholar
• Goodwin, M. J. (2014). ‘A breakthrough moment or false dawn? The great recession and the radical right in Europe’, in European Populism and Winning the Immigration Debate, ed C. Sandelind, European Liberal Forum, Stockholm, pp. 15–40.
   Google Scholar
• Grimmer, J. & Stewart, B. (2013) ‘Text as data: the promise and pitfalls of automatic content analysis methods for political texts’, Political Analysis, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 267–297.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gründl, J. (2020) ‘Populist ideas on social media: a dictionary-based measurement of populist communication’, New Media & Society, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 1481–1499.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Häusermann, S. & Kriesi, H. (2015) ‘What do voters want? Dimensions and configurations in individual-level preferences and party choice’, The Future of Democratic Capitalism Conference, Zurich, 18 June 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Häusermann, S., Kurer, T. & Zollinger, D. (2023) ‘Aspiration versus apprehension: economic opportunities and electoral preferences’, British Journal of Political Science, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 1–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinisch, R. & Jansesberger, V. (2022) ‘Lacking control. Analysing the demand side of populist party support’, European Politics and Society, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 266–285.
   Google Scholar
• Heinisch, R. & Werner, A. (2019) ‘Who do populist radical right parties stand for? Representative claims, claim acceptance and descriptive representation in the Austrian FPÖ and German AfD’, Representation, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 475–492.
   Google Scholar
• Hunger, S. & Paxton, F. (2022) ‘What’s in a buzzword? A systematic review of the state of populism research in political science’, Political Science Research and Methods, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 617–633.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutter, S., Kriesi, H. & Vidal, G. (2018) ‘Old versus new politics: the political spaces in Southern Europe in times of crises’, Party Politics, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 10–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsambekis, G. (2020) ‘Constructing ‘the people’ of populism: a critique of the ideational approach from a discursive perspective’, Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 53–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kioupkiolis, A. (2016) ‘Podemos: the ambiguous promises of left-wing populism in contemporary Spain’, Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 99–120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kioupkiolis, A. & Pérez, F. S. (2019) ‘Reflexive technopopulism: Podemos and the search for a new left-wing hegemony’, European Political Science, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 24–36.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kriesi, H., Grande, E., Romain, L., Martin, D., Simon, B. & Frey, T. (2006) ‘Globalization and the transformation of the national political space: six European countries compared’, European Journal of Political Research, vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 921–956.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kriesi, H. & Schulte-Closs, J. (2020) ‘Support for radical parties in Western Europe: structural conflicts and political dynamics’, Electoral Studies, vol. 65, pp. 102138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laclau, E. (2005) On Populist Reason, Verso, London.
   Google Scholar
• Langsæther, P., Evans, G. & O’Grady, T. (2022) ‘Explaining the relationship between class position and political preferences: a long-term panel analysis of intra-generational class mobility’, British Journal of Political Science, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 958–967.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laver, M., Benoit, K. & Garry, J. (2003) ‘Extracting policy positions from political texts using words as data’, The American Political Science Review, vol. 97, no. 2, pp. 311–331.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linz, J. & Montero, J. R. (1999) ‘The party system of Spain: old cleavages and new challenges’, Working Paper 138, Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Ciencias Sociales.
   Google Scholar
• Macanovic, A. (2022) ‘Text mining for social science. The state and the future of computational text analysis in sociology’, Social Science Research, vol. 108, pp. 102784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mainwaring, S. (2016) ‘Party system institutionalization, party collapse and party building’, Government and Opposition, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 691–716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcos-Marne, H., Plaza-Colodro, C. & O’Flynn, C. (2021) ‘Populism and new radical-right parties: the case of Vox’, Politics.
   Google Scholar
• Mazzolini, S. & Borriello, A. (2022) ‘The normalization of left populism? The paradigmatic case of Podemos’, European Politics and Society, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 285–300.
   Google Scholar
• Meijers, M. J. & Zaslove, A. (2021) ‘Measuring populism in political parties: appraisal of a new approach’, Comparative Political Studies, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 372–407.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. (2004) ‘The populist zeitgeist’, Government and Opposition, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 541–563.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. (2007) Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. (2021) ‘Populism in Europe: an illiberal democratic response to democratic liberalism (The Government and Opposition/Leonard Schapiro lecture 2019)’, Government and Opposition, vol. 56, no. 4, pp. 577–597.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2012). ’Populism and (liberal) democracy: a framework for analysis’ in Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat or Corrective for Democracy?, eds C. Mudde & C. R. Kaltwasser, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1–26.
   Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2013) ’Exclusionary vs. inclusionary populism: comparing contemporary Europe and Latin America’, Government and Opposition, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 147–174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2018) ‘Studying populism in comparative perspective: reflections on the contemporary and future research agenda’, Comparative Political Studies, vol. 51, no. 13, pp. 1667–1693.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muddiman, A., McGregor, S. C. & Stroud, N. J. (2019) ‘(Re)Claiming our expertise: parsing large text corpora with manually validated and organic dictionaries’, Political Communication, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 214–226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller, J. W. (2016) What is Populism?, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, L. K., Burk, D., Knudsen, M. & McCall, L. (2021) ‘The future of coding: a comparison of hand-coding and three types of computer-assisted text analysis methods’, Sociological Methods & Research, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 202–237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oesch, D. & Rennwald, L. (2018) ‘Electoral competition in Europe’s new tripolar political space: class voting for the left, centre-right and radical right’, European Journal of Political Research, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 783–807.
   Google Scholar
• Olivas-Osuna, J. J. & Rama, J. (2022) ’Recalibrating populism measurement tools: methodological inconsistencies and challenges to our understanding of the relationship between the supply- and demand-side of populism’, Frontiers on Sociology, vol. 7, no. 970043.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Orriols, L. & Cordero, G. (2016) ‘The breakdown of the Spanish two-party system: the upsurge of Podemos and Ciudadanos in the 2015 general election’, South European Society and Politics, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 469–492.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pirro, A. L. P., Taggart, P. & van Kessel, S. (2018) ’The populist politics of Euroscepticism in times of crisis: comparative conclusions’, Politics, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 378–390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podemos (2014a) ‘Pablo Iglesias campaign speech, April 2014, Albacete’, available online at: https://rb/gy/2sappe
   Google Scholar
• Podemos (2014b) ‘Pablo Iglesias campaign speech, January 2014, Gijón’, available online at: https://t.ly/i_Vnd
   Google Scholar
• Podemos (2014c) ‘Pablo Iglesias campaign speech, May 2014, Soria’, available online at: https://t.ly/xJkEg
   Google Scholar
• Podemos (2017) ‘Pablo Iglesias campaign speech, December 2017, Barcelona’, available online at: https://rb.gy/2sappe
   Google Scholar
• Proksch, S. O., Lowe, W., Wäckerle, J. & Soroka, S. (2019) ’Multilingual sentiment analysis: a new approach to measuring conflict in legislative speeches’, Legislative Studies Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 97–131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rama, J., Cordero, G. & Zagórski, P. (2021) ’Three is a crowd? Podemos, Ciudadanos, and Vox: the end of bipartisanship in Spain’, Frontiers in Political Science, vol. 3, no. 688130.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramaekers, M., Karremans, T., Lubbers, M. & Visser, M. (2023) ’Social class, economic and political grievances and radical left voting: the role of macroeconomic performance’, European Societies, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 444–467.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rico Motos, C. & Del Palacio Martín, J. (2023) ’Constructing the enemy: the evolution of Podemos’ populist discourse from anti-system movement to power (2014–2021)’, Journal of Political Ideologies, pp. 1–23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, K. M. (2017). ’Populism and political parties’ in The Oxford Handbook of Populism, eds C. R. Kaltwasser, P. Taggart & P. O. Espejo, Ostiguy Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 287–306.
   Google Scholar
• Roch, J. (2021) ’Friends or foes? Europe and “the people” in the representations of populist parties’, Politics, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 224–239.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roch, J. (2024a) ’De-centring populism: an empirical analysis of the contingent nature of populist discourses’, Political Studies, vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 48–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roch, J. (2024b) The Populism-Euroscepticism Nexus: A Discursive Comparative Analysis of Germany and Spain, Routledge, London.
   Google Scholar
• Rodríguez-Teruel, J., Barrio, A. & Barberà, O. (2016) ’Fast and furious: Podemos’ quest for power in multi-level Spain’, South European Society and Politics, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 561–585.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodrik, D. (2018) ’Populism and the economics of globalization’, Journal of International Business Policy, vol. 1, no. 1–2, pp. 12–33.
   Google Scholar
• Rodrik, D. (2021). ’Why does globalization fuel populism? Economics, culture, and the rise of right-wing populism’, Annual Review of Economics, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 133–170.
   Google Scholar
• Rooduijn, M. (2018) ’What unites the voter bases of populist parties? Comparing the electorates of 15 populist parties’, European Political Science Review, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 351–368.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rooduijn, M., Van Kessel, S. & Froio, C., van Kessel, S., de Lange, SL, Mudde, C. & Taggart, P. (2019) ‘The populist: an overview of populist, far right, far left and Eurosceptic parties in Europe’, available online at: www.populist.org
   Google Scholar
• Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2014). ‘The responses of populism to Dahl’s democratic dilemmas‘, Political Studies, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 470–487.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rovira Kaltwasser, C. & Van Hauwaert, S. (2020) ’The populist citizen: empirical evidence from Europe and Latin America’, European Political Science Review, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarrow, S. E., Wright, J. M. & Gauja, A. (2023) ’Party statutes and party institutionalization’, Party Politics, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 217–228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt, V. A. (2023) ’Populist agenda-setting: shaping the narrative, framing the debate, captivating the “people”, upending the mainstream, capturing power’, Journal of European Public Policy, pp. 1–24.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, M. (2016) WordSmith Tools, Version 7, Stroud, Lexical Analysis Software.
   Google Scholar
• Silge, J. & Robinson, D. (2016) ’tidytext: text mining and analysis using tidy data principles in R’, The Journal of Open Source Software, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 37.
   Google Scholar
• Solis, J. A. & Sagarzazu, I. (2020) ’The media smells like sulfur! Leaders and verbal attacks against the fourth estate in unconsolidated democracies’, Political Communication, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 20–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, H., Tolochko, P., Eberl, J. M., Eisele, O., Greussing, E., Heidenreich, T. & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2020). ‘In validations we trust? The impact of imperfect human annotations as a gold standard on the quality of validation of automated content analysis’, Political Communication, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 550–572.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soroka, S., Young, L. & Balmas, M. (2015) ‘Bad news or mad news? Sentiment scoring of negativity, fear, and anger in news content’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 659, no. 1, pp. 108–121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spruyt, B., Keppens, G. & Van Droogenbroeck, F. (2016) ’Who supports populism and what attracts people to it?’, Political Research Quarterly, vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 335–346.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stavrakakis, Y. & Katsambekis, G. (2019) ’The populism/anti-populism frontier and its mediation in crisis-ridden Greece: from discursive divide to emerging cleavage?’, European Political Science, vol. 18, pp. 37–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner, N. D., Hoffeller, L., Gutheil, Y. & Wiesenfeldt, T. (2023) ’Class voting for radical-left parties in Western Europe: the libertarian versus authoritarian class trade-off’, Party Politics, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 579–591.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner, N. D., Schimpf, C. H. & Wuttke, A. (2023) ’Abgehängt und im Populismus vereint? Die vielfältigen Wurzeln des Populismus im Gefühl fehlender gesellschaftlicher Anerkennung’, Politische Vierteljahresschrift, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 107–132.
   Google Scholar
• Stockemer, D. (2017) The Front National in France. Continuity and Change Under Jean-Marie Le Pen and Marine Le Pen, Palgrave, London.
   Google Scholar
• Stuckelberger, S. & Tresch, A. (2022) ’Group appeals of parties in times of economic and identity conflicts and realignment’, Political Studies, vol. 72, no. 2, pp. 463–485.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taggart, P. & Pirro, A. L. P. (2021) ’European populism before the pandemic: ideology, Euroscepticism, electoral performance, and government participation of 63 parties in 30 countries’, Italian Political Science Review, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 281–304.
   Google Scholar
• Taggart, P. & Szczerbiak, A. (2002) ‘The party politics of Euroscepticism in EU member and candidate states’, paper prepared for presentation at the European Consortium for Political Research Joint Workshops, Turin, March 21–27, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Teperoglou, E., Tsatsanis, E. & Nicolacopoulos, E. (2015) ’Habituating to the new normal in a post-earthquake party system: the 2014 European election in Greece’, South European Society and Politics, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 333–355.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thau, M. (2021) ’The social divisions of politics: how parties’ group-based appeals influence social group differences in vote choice’, The Journal of Politics, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 675–688.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thau, M. (2023) ’The group appeal strategy: beyond the policy perspective on party electoral success’, Political Studies.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turnbull-Dugarte, S. J., Rama, J. & Santana, A. (2020) ’The Baskerville’s dog suddenly started barking: voting for Vox in the 2019 Spanish general elections’, Political Research Exchange, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1–21.
   Google Scholar
• Urbinati, N. (2019) ’Political theory of populism’, Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 111–127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vachudova, M. A. (2021) ’Populism, democracy, and party system change in Europe’, Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 471–498
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venizelos, G. & Stavrakakis, Y. (2022) ‘Bound to fail? Assessing contemporary left populism’, PRAXIS International, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 290–308.
   Google Scholar
• Vox (2018a) ‘Javier Ortega Smith campaign speech, July 2018, Tarragona’, available online at: https://t.ly/VhYKu
   Google Scholar
• Vox (2018b) ‘Javier Ortega Smith campaign speech, March 2018’, available online at: https://t.ly/1ztNd
   Google Scholar
• Vox (2018c) ‘Santiago Abascal campaign speech, March 2018, Tarragona’, available online at: https://t.ly/fdQMa
   Google Scholar
• Vox (2018d) ‘Santiago Abascal campaign speech, November 2018, Murcia’, available online at: https://t.ly/37TKO
   Google Scholar
• Vox (2021a) ‘Programa marco de 100 medidas de Vox’, available online at: https://t.ly/z2Ie3
   Google Scholar
• Vox (2021b) ‘Santiago Abascal campaign speech, June 2021, Madrid’, available online at: https://t.ly/lUgiC
   Google Scholar
• Vox (2022a) ‘Santiago Abascal campaign speech, January 2022, Valladolid’, available online at: https://t.ly/EKt3w
   Google Scholar
• Vox (2022b) ‘Santiago Abascal campaign speech, October 2022, Madrid’, available online at: https://t.ly/uei2T
   Google Scholar
• Wouter van Atteveldt, M., van der Velden, A. C. G. & Boukes, M. (2021) ‘The validity of sentiment analysis: comparing manual annotation, crowd-coding, dictionary approaches, and machine learning algorithms’, Communication Methods and Measures, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 121–140.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, L. & Soroka, S. (2012) ’Affective news: the automated coding of sentiment in political texts’, Political Communication, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 205–231.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zagórski, P., Rama, J. & Cordero, G. (2021) ’Young and temporary: youth employment insecurity and support for right-wing populist parties in Europe’, Government and Opposition, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 405–426.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanotti, L. & Turnbull-Dugarte, S. J. (2022) ’Surviving but not thriving: Vox and Spain in times of COVID-19’, Government and Opposition, pp. 1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar