Fighting a 'Public Enemy' of Black Academic Achievement—the persistence of racism and the schooling experiences of Black students in Canada

References

• ALLADIN , I. , ed. 1996 . Racism in Canadian Schools , Toronto : Harcourt Brace & Company Canada .
   Google Scholar
• APPLE , M. W. 1978 . Ideology, reproduction, and educational reform . Comparative Education Review , 22 (3) : 367 – 387 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• APPLE , M. W. 1990 . Ideology and Curriculum, , 2nd edn , New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• APPLE , M. W. 1992 . The text and cultural politics . Educational Researcher , 21 (7) : 4 – 11 . 19
   Google Scholar
• ASANTE , M. K. 1992 . Afrocentric curriculum . Educational Leadership , 49 (4) : 28 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ASANTE , R. G. 1985 . “ Afrocentricity and culture ” . In African Culture: the rhythms of unity , Edited by: ASANTE , M. K. and ASANTE , K. W. Westport , CT : Greenwood Press .
   Google Scholar
• BANKS , J. and McGEEBANKS , C. A. , eds. 1991 . Multicultural Education: issues and perspective, , 2nd edn , Boston , MA : Allyn & Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• BARRETT , S. R. 1987 . Is God a Racist? The Right Wing in Canada , Toronto : University of Toronto Press .
   Google Scholar
• BLACK LEARNERS ADVISORY COMMITTEE . 1994 . BLAC Report on Education: Redressing Inequity: empowering black learners. Volume 1: Summary , Volume 1 , Halifax , NS : Black Learners Advisory Committee .
   Google Scholar
• BOATENG , F. 1997 . Reflections on education: a call for a creative African-centered approach . Ghana Review International , 42 : 21 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• BOATENG , F. Equalizing Opportunities for Black Students in School District 81: concerns and recommendations , Spokane , WA : Black Education Association of Spokane . (n.d.)
   Google Scholar
• BOYKIN , A. W. 1986 . “ The triple quandary and the schooling of Afro-American children ” . In The School Achievement of Minority Children: new perspectives , Edited by: NEISSER , U. Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbau m Associates .
   Google Scholar
• BRATHWAITE , K. 1989 . “ The black student and the school: a Canadian dilemma ” . In African Continuities , Edited by: CHILUNGU , S. W. and NIANG , S. 195 – 216 . Toronto : Terebi .
   Google Scholar
• BRAUN , C. 1976 . Teacher expectations: socio-psychological dynamics . Review of Education Research , 42 : 185 – 213 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CAMPBELL , M. 1989 . Fighting back: Canadian blacks have become alarmed over a recent series of race-related incidents . The Globe and Mail , 21 January : D1 – D2 .
   Google Scholar
• CANNON , M. 1995 . The Invisible Empire: racism in Canada , Toronto : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• CARLSON , D. L. 1995 . Constructing the margins: of multicultural education and curriculum settlements . Curriculum Inquiry , 25 : 407 – 431 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CHIGBO , O. 1989 . Land of 'smiling racism': Canada's image as a racially tolerant society is a myth . West Africa , 20-26 March : 438
   Google Scholar
• CLARKE , G. E. 1998 . White like Canada . Transition , 73 : 98 – 109 .
   Google Scholar
• CODJOE , H. M. 1997 . “ Black students and school success: a study of the experiences of academically successful African-Canadian student graduates in Alberta's secondary school ” . Edmonton , , Canada : Faculty of Education, University of Alberta . PhD dissertation,
   Google Scholar
• CODJOE , H. M. 1998 . Pre-college/university education of Ghanaians and other Africans in North America: a Canadian perspective . Ghana Review International , June : 10 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• CODJOE , H. M. 1999 . The schooling experiences of African students in Canadian schools . International Journal of Curriculum and Instntction , 1 : 67 – 94 .
   Google Scholar
• CODJOE , H. M. 2001 . “ Can blacks be racist? Reflections on being 'too black and African' ” . In Talking About Identity: encounters in race, ethnicity and language , Edited by: JAMES , C. and SHADD , A. 277 – 290 . Toronto : Between the Lines .
   Google Scholar
• DEI , G. J. S. 1993 . Narrative discourses of black/African-Canadian parents and the Canadian public school system . Canadian Ethnic Studies , 25 : 45 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• DEI , G. J. S. 1994 . Afrocentricity: a cornerstone of pedagogy . Anthropology and Education Quarterly , 25 : 3 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEI , G.J. S. 1995a . Examining the case for 'African-centred' schools in Ontario . McGill Journal of Education , 30 : 179 – 198 .
   Google Scholar
• DEI , G.J. S. 1995b . African studies in Canada: problems and challenges . Journal of Black Studies , 26 : 153 – 171 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DEI , G. J. S. 1995c . Report's critics can't ignore student alienation: OISE study found sense of exclusion among minorities . The Toronto Star , 8 December
   Google Scholar
• DEI , G. J. S. 1996a . “ Black/African-Canadian students' perspectives on school racism ” . In Racism in Canadian Schools , Edited by: ALLADIN , I. Toronto : Harcourt Brace & Company .
   Google Scholar
• DEI , G. J. S. 1996b . “ Black/African-Canadian students' perspectives on school racism ” . In Racism in Canadian Schools , Edited by: ALLADIN , I. Toronto : Harcourt Brace & Company .
   Google Scholar
• DEI , G. J. S. 1996c . Anti-racism Education: theory and practice , Halifax , NS : Fernwood Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• D'OYLEY , V. , ed. 1994 . Innovations in Black Education in Canada , Toronto : Umbrella Press/ National Council of Black Educators of Canada .
   Google Scholar
• D'OYLEY , V. and SILVER1MAN , H. , eds. 1976 . Black Students in Urban Canada , Toronto : TESL Talk, Ministry of Culture and Recreation .
   Google Scholar
• D'SOUZA , D. 1995 . The End of Racism: principles for a multicultural society , New York : The Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• ERICKSON , F. 1987 . Transformation and school success: the politics and culture of educational achievement . Anthropology and Education Quarterly , 18 : 335 – 356 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ESTRADA , K. and MCLAREN , P. 1993 . A dialogue on multicultural and democratic culture . Educational Researcher , 22 (3) April : 27 – 33 .
   Google Scholar
• FLECHA , R. 1999 . Modern and postmodern racism in Europe: dialogic approach and anti-racist pedagogies . Harvard Educational Review , 69 : 150 – 171 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GARCIA , S. B. , WILKINSON , C. Y. and ORTIZ , A. A. 1995 . Enhancing achievement for language minority students: classroom, school, and family contexts . Education and Urban Society , 27 : 441 – 462 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GAY , G. 1988 . Designing relevant curricula for diverse learners . Education and Urban Society , 20 : 327 – 340 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GIROUX , H.A. 1986 . The politics of schooling and culture . Orbit , 17 (4) : 10 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• GIROUX , H. A. 1994 . Doing cultural studies: youth and the challenge of pedagogy . Harvard Educational Review , 64 : 278 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GOOD , T. L. and BROPHY , J. E. 1973 . Looking in Classrooms , New York : Harper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• GOSE , B. 1995 . Test scores and stereotypes: psychologist finds that blacks, females are vulnerable to lowered expectations . Chronicle of Higher Education , 18 August : A31
   Google Scholar
• GOUGIS , R. A. 1986 . “ The effects of prejudice and stress on the academic performance of Black-Americans ” . In The School Achievement of Minority Children: new perspectives , Edited by: NEISSER , U. Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• HALE-BENSON , J. 1986 . Black Children, Their Roots, Culture and Learning Styles , Baltimore , MD : Johns Hopkins University Press .
   Google Scholar
• HARRISON , L. E. 2000 . “ Why culture matters ” . In Culture Matters-how values shape human progress , Edited by: HARRISON , L. E. and HUNTINGTON , S. P. xvi – xxxiv . New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• HAYES , D. W. 1996 . Athletes, outcasts and partyers: academic excellence rarely seen on the big screen . Black Issues in Higher Education , 12 (23) : 26 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• HEAD , W. 1975 . The Black Presence in the Canadian Mosaic: a study of perception and the practice of discrimination against blacks in metropolitan Toronto , Toronto : Ontario Human Rights Commission .
   Google Scholar
• HENRY , A. 1993 . Missing: black self-representations in Canadian educational research . Canadian Journal of Education , 18 : 206 – 222 .
   Google Scholar
• HENRY , F. , TATOR , C. , MATTIS , W. and REES , T. 1995 . The Colour of Democracy: racism in Canadian society , Toronto : Harcourt Brace & Company .
   Google Scholar
• HERRNSTEIN , R. and MURRAY , C. 1994 . The Bell Curve: intelligence and class structure in American life , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Hoo KONG , N. A. 1996 . “ Confronting a history of exclusion: a personal reflection ” . In Educating African Canadians , Edited by: BRATHWAITE , K. and JAMES , C. E. 58 – 68 . Toronto : James Lorimer & Company .
   Google Scholar
• IRVINE , J. J. 1990 . Black Students and School Failure: policies, practices, and prescriptions , New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• JAMES , C. 1995 . 'Reverse racism' students' response to equity programs . Journal of Professional Studies , 3 : 48 – 54 .
   Google Scholar
• JAMES , C. E. 1990 . Making It: black youth, racism and career aspirations in a big city , Oakville , ON : Mosaic Press .
   Google Scholar
• JAMES , C. E. 1994 . “ I've never had a black teacher before ” . In Talking about Difference: encounters in culture, language and identity , Edited by: JAMES , C. and SHADD , A. Toronto : Between the Lines .
   Google Scholar
• JAMES , C. E. and BRATHWAITE , K. 1996 . “ The education of African Canadians: issues, contexts, and expectations ” . In Educating African Canadians , Edited by: BRATHWAITE , K. and JAMES , C. E. 13 – 31 . Toronto : James Lorimer & Company .
   Google Scholar
• KING , S. H. 1993 . The limited presence of African-American teachers . Review of Educational Research , 63 (2) : 115 – 149 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LAROCQUE , E. 1991 . “ Racism runs through Canadian society ” . In Racism in Canada , Edited by: McKAGUE , O. Saskatoon : Fifth House Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• LEE , E. 1992 . Letters to Marcia: a teacher's guide to anti-racist education , Toronto : Ontario Cross-Cultural Communication Centre .
   Google Scholar
• LENDORE-MAHABIR , M. 1995 . Issues Associated with Racial Intolerance and Inequality and Proposals for Their Resolution , Edmonton : Council of Black Organizations .
   Google Scholar
• LEWINGTON , J. 1993 . Ontario attacks racism in the classroom . The Globe and Mail , 16 July
   Google Scholar
• LEWIS , S. 1992 . Consultative Report on Race Relations , Toronto : Ontario Ministry of Citizenship .
   Google Scholar
• LOGAN , S. L. 1990 . Promoting academic excellence of African-American students: issues and strategies . Educational Considerations , 18 : 12 – 15 .
   Google Scholar
• LYONS , C. and FARRELL , M. 1994 . Teaching tolerance: multicultural and anti- racist education . McGill Journal of Education , 29 : 5 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• MACIAS , J. 1993 . Forgotten history: educational and social antecedents of high achievement among Asian immigrants in the United States . Curriculum Inquiry , 23 : 409 – 432 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MAHARAH-SANDHU . 1995 . Anti-racist curriculum in an ethnocentric society . Multiculturalism , 16 : 14 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• MCCARTHY , C. and CRICHLOW , W. 1993 . “ Introduction: theories of identity, theories of representation, theories of race ” . In Race, Identity, and Representation in Education , Edited by: MCCARTHY , C. and CRICHLOW , W. xii – xxix . New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• McKAGUE , O. , ed. 1991 . Racism in Canada , Saskatoon : Fifth House Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• MEHAN , H. 1996 . Commentary: constitutive processes of race and exclusion . Anthropology and Education Quarterly , 27 : 270 – 278 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MILLER , L. S. 1995 . The origins of the presumption of black stupidity . Journal of Blacks in Higher Education , 9 : 78 – 82 .
   Google Scholar
• MlNNICH , E. K. 1990 . Transforming Knowledge , Philadelphia , PA : Temple University Press .
   Google Scholar
• MOODLEY , K. 1985 . “ The predicament of racial affirmative action: a critical review of'Equality Now': Report of the Special Committee on Visible Minorities in Canada ” . In Race Relations and Multicultural Education , Edited by: MOODLEY , K. 111 – 123 . Vancouver : Centre for the Study of Curriculum and Instruction, University of British Columbia .
   Google Scholar
• NIETO , S. 1992 . Affirming Diversity: the sociopolitical context of multicultural education , New York : Longman .
   Google Scholar
• NIETO , S. 1994 . Lessons from students on creating a chance to dream . Harvard Educational Review , 64 : 392 – 426 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OAKE , G. 1991 . Racism hits Edmonton schools . Toronto Star , 12 December
   Google Scholar
• OAKES , J. 1985 . Keeping Track: how schools structure inequality , New Haven , CT : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• O'MALLEY , S. 1992 . Demand quality education, black parents told . The Globe and Mail , 20 August
   Google Scholar
• OMI , M. and WINANT , H. 1998 . “ Racial formations ” . In Race, Class, and Gender in the United States-an integrated study, , 4th edn , Edited by: Rothenberg , P. S. 13 – 22 . New York : St Martin's Press .
   Google Scholar
• ORANGE , C. 1995 . Precursors, perceptions, probabilities and peers: enemies of African-American achievement . NASSP Curriculum Report , 25
   Google Scholar
• PERRY , T. 1993 . How racial and ethnic family and community characteristics affect children's achievement: the African-American experience , Research and Development Report, March, No. 3 Baltimore , MD : Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Children's Learning .
   Google Scholar
• PINAR , W. F. 1993 . “ Notes on understanding curriculum as a racial text ” . In Race, Identity, and Representation in Education , Edited by: MCCARTHY , C. and CRICHLOW , W. New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• POLLARD , D. S. 1989 . Against the odds: a profile of academic achievers from the urban underclass . Journal of Negro Education , 58 : 297 – 308 .
   Google Scholar
• REED , I. 1993 . Airing Dirty Laundry , Reading , MA : Addison-Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• REITZ , J.G. and BRETTON , R. 1994 . The Illusion of Difference: realities of ethnicity in Canada and the United States , Toronto : C. D. Howe Institute .
   Google Scholar
• REYNOLDS , A. J. Distinguishing characteristics of children at risk who are successful in school . paper presented at the 1993 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association . April 12-16 , Atlanta .
   Google Scholar
• RICHARDSON , R. 1995 . Let no one off the hook . Canadian Forum , 74 (841) : 36 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• ROMAN , L. G. 1993 . “ White is a color! White defensiveness, postmodernism, and anti-racistc pedagogy ” . In Race, Identity, and Representation in Education , Edited by: MCCARTHY , C. and CRICHLOW , W. New York : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• ROMAN , L. , CHRISTIAN-SMITH , L. and ELLSWORTH , L. , eds. 1988 . Becoming Feminine: the politics of popular culture , Philadelphia , PA : Palmer Press .
   Google Scholar
• SARICK , L. 1995 . Studie examine hurdles facing black students . The Globe and Mail , 21 December : A3
   Google Scholar
• SARUP , M. 1991 . Education and the Ideologies of Racism , Stoke-on-Trent : Trentham Books .
   Google Scholar
• SELDEN , S. 1978 . Eugenics and curriculum: 1860-1929 . The Educational Forum , 43 : 67 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SINGH , A. 1986 . “ Effects of teacher perception on achievement ” . In Multicultural Education Programmes and Methods , Edited by: SAMUDA , R. J. and KONG , S. L. 89 – 104 . Toronto : Intercultural Social Sciences Publications .
   Google Scholar
• SIRAJ-BLATCHFORD , I. , ed. 1993 . Race, Gender and the Education of Teachers , London : Open University Press .
   Google Scholar
• SIUM , B. 1987 . Streaming in education and beyond: black students talk . Orbit , 18 : 20 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• SLAUGHTER , D. T. and EPPS , E. G. 1987 . The home environment and academic achievement of black American children and youth: an overview . Journal of Negro Education , 56 : 3 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• SLEETER , C. 1991 . “ Multicultural education and empowerment ” . In Empowerment through Multicultural Education , Edited by: SLEETER , C. 157 – 171 . Albany , NY : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• SMALL , S. 1994 . Racialized Barriers: the black experience in the United States and England in the 1980s , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• SOLOMON , P. 1992 . Black Resistance in High School: forging a separatist culture , Albany , NY : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• SOLORZANO , D. G. 1997 . Images and words that wound: critical race theory, racial stereotyping, and teacher education . Teacher Education Quarterly , Summer : 5 – 19 .
   Google Scholar
• SPENCER , J. R. 1995 . “ Under the gaze: the experiences of African-Canadian students in two Edmonton high schools ” . Edmonton , , Canada : Department of Educational Policy Studies, University of Alberta . unpublished MA thesis,
   Google Scholar
• STEELE , C.M. 1992 . Race and the schooling of Black Americans . The Atlantic Monthly , April : 68 – 78 .
   Google Scholar
• STEELE , C. M. 1997 . A threat in the air: how stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance . American Psychologist , : 613 – 629 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEELE , C. M. 1999 . Thin ice: 'stereotype threat' and black college students . Atlantic Monthly , 284 (2) : 44 – 54 .
   Google Scholar
• STEELE , C. M. and ARONSON , J. 1995 . Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 : 797 – 811 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• STEELE , S. 1989 . The recoloring of campus life: student racism, academic pluralism, and the end of a dream . Harper's Magazine , 278 (1665) : 47 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• STEELE , S. 1990 . The Content of Our Character , New York : St Martin's Press .
   Google Scholar
• STRICKLAND , D. S. 1994 . Educating African American learners at risk: finding a better way . Language Arts , 71 : 328 – 336 .
   Google Scholar
• SULTANA , R. G. 1995 . “ Ethnography and the politics of absence ” . In Critical Theory and Educational Research , Edited by: McLAREN , P. L. and GIARELLI , J. M. 113 – 125 . Albany , NY : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• TALBANI , A. S. 1991 . “ Education and ethnic minorities in Canada: South Asian students in Quebec schools ” . Montreal , , Canada : Faculty of Education, McGiIl University . PhD dissertation,
   Google Scholar
• TAYLOR , A. R. 1991 . Social competence and the early school transition: risk and protective factors for African-American children . Education and Urban Society , 24 : 15 – 26 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• THAKUR , A. 1988 . The Impact of Schooling on Visible Minorities: a case study of black students in Alberta secondary schools , Nanaimo : Malaspina College .
   Google Scholar
• THORNHILL , E. 1984 . Fight racism starting with the school . Currents: Readings in Race Relations , 2 (3) : 3 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• TOWARDS A NEW BEGINNING . 1992 . The Report and Action Plan of the Four-Level Government/African Canadian Community Working Group Toronto
   Google Scholar
• TUACK , D. 1974 . One Best System: a history of American urban education , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• WALKER , S. 1991 . Schools don't do enough for blacks, educators say . Toronto Star , 15 April
   Google Scholar
• WALTERS , T. S. 1994 . Multicultural literacy: mental scripts for elementary, secondary, andcollege teachers . Equity and Excellence in Education , 27 : 45 – 52 .
   Google Scholar
• WILLIS , A. I. 1995 . Reading the world of school literacy: contextualizing the experience of a young African American male . Harvard Educational Review , 65 : 30 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WINKS , R. 1971 . The History of Blacks in Canada , New Haven , CT : Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• WOTHERSPOON , T. 1987 . “ Conflict and crisis in Canadian ducation ” . In The Political Economy of Canadian Schools , Edited by: WOTHERSPOON , T. 1 – 15 . Toronto : Methuen .
   Google Scholar
• YIN , R. K. 1984 . Case Study Research: design and methods , Newbury Park , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• YON , D. 1994 . “ The educational experiences of Caribbean youth ” . In The Caribbean Diaspora in Toronto: learning to live with racism , Edited by: HENRY , F. 120 – 147 . Toronto : University of Toronto Press .
   Google Scholar