Treatment of persistent pain from torture: review and commentary

References

• Adams, K. M., L. D. Gardiner, and N. Assefi. 2004. “Healthcare Challenges from the Developing World: Post-immigration Refugee Medicine.” British Medical Journal 328: 1548–1552.10.1136/bmj.328.7455.1548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amnesty International Report. [2014] 2015. “The State of the World’s Human Rights.” https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol10/0001/2015/en/.
   Google Scholar
• Amris, K. 2005. “Chronic Pain in Survivors of Torture – Psych or Soma?” In: Torture and Organised Violence. Contributions to a Professional Human Rights Response, edited by P. Berliner, J. Arenas, and J. Haagensen, 31-69. Copenhagen: Dansk Psykologisk Forlag.
   Google Scholar
• Amris, K., S. Danneskiold-Samsøe, S. Torp-Pedersen, I. Genefke, and B. Danneskiold-Samsøe. 2007. “Producing Medico-legal Evidence: Documentation of Torture versus the Saudi Arabian State of Denial.” Torture 17: 181–195.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amris, K., S. Torp-Pedersen, and O. V. Rasmussen. 2009. “Long-term Consequences of Falanga Torture – What Do We Know and What Do We Need to Know?” Torture 19 (1): 33–40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amris, K., and A. Williams 2007. “Chronic Pain in Survivors of Torture.” Pain: Clinical Updates XV: 1-4. Accessed 8 March, 2016. http://www.iasp-pain.org/PublicationsNews/NewsletterIssue.aspx?ItemNumber=2108
   Google Scholar
• Apkarian, A. V., J. A. Hashmi, and M. N. Baliki. 2011. “Pain and the Brain: Specificity and Plasticity of the Brain in Clinical Chronic Pain.” Pain 152: S49–S64.10.1016/j.pain.2010.11.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arguelles, L. M., N. Afari, D. S. Buchwald, D. J. Clauw, S. Furner, and J. Goldberg. 2006. “A Twin Study of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Chronic Widespread Pain.” Pain 124 (1): 150–157.10.1016/j.pain.2006.04.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avruch, K. 2010. “Truth and Reconciliation Commissions: Problems in Transitional Justice and the Reconstruction of Identity.” Transcultural Psychiatry 47: 33–49. doi:10.1177/1363461510362043.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baird, E., A. C. de C. Williams, L. Hearn, and K. Amris 2016. “Interventions for Treating Persistent Pain in Survivors of Torture [Protocol].” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1). Art. No.: CD012051. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012051.
   Google Scholar
• Başoğlu, M., M. Livanou, C. Crnobarić, T. Frančišković, E. Suljić, D. Đurić, and M. Vranešić. 2005. “Psychiatric and Cognitive Effects of War in Former Yugoslavia: Association of Lack of Redress for Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Reactions.” Journal of the American Medical Association 294 (5): 580–590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blyth, F. M., L. M. March, M. K. Nicholas, and M. J. Cousins. 2005. “Self-management of Chronic Pain: A Population Study.” Pain 113: 85–292.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosco, M. A., J. L. Gallinati, and M. E. Clark 2013. “Conceptualizing and Treating Comorbid Chronic Pain and PTSD.” Pain Research and Treatment Article ID 174728. doi:10.1155/2013/174728.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brodda Jansen, G., R. Nordemar, L. Larsson, and C. Blyhammar. 2011. Abstract: “Pain Rehabilitation for Torture Survivors”. European Journal of Pain Supplements 5 (S1) 284 (S650).
   Google Scholar
• Bro-Rasmussen, F., and O. V. Rasmussen. 1978. “Falanga Torture. Are the Sequelae of Falanga Torture due to the Closed Compartment Syndrome in the Feet and is This a Common Clinical Picture?” Ugeskr Laeger 140 (51): 3197–3202.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carinci, A. J., P. Mehta, and P. J. Christo. 2010. “Chronic Pain in Torture Victims.” Current Pain and Headache Reports 14: 73–79. doi:10.1007/s11916-010-0101-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cienfuegos, J., and C. Monelli. 1983. “The Testimony of Political Repression as a Therapeutic Instrument.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 53: 43–51.10.1111/j.1939-0025.1983.tb03348.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coffey, G. J., I. Kaplan, R. C. Sampson, and M. M. Tucci. 2010. “The Meaning and Mental Health Consequences of Long-term Immigration Detention for People Seeking Asylum.” Social Science and Medicine 70 (12): 2070–2079.10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.02.042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. 2008. “Safe in Our Hands? A Study of Suicide and Self-harm in Asylum Seekers.” Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 15: 235–244.10.1016/j.jflm.2007.11.001
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crombez, G., K. Beirens, S. Van Damme, C. Eccleston, and J. Fontaine. 2009. “The Unbearable Lightness of Somatisation: A Systematic Review of the Concept of Somatisation in Empirical Studies of Pain.” Pain 145: 31–35.10.1016/j.pain.2009.04.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crosby, S. S., M. Norredam, M. K. Paasche-Orlow, L. Piwowarczyk, T. Heeren, and M. A. Grodin. 2006. “Prevalence of Torture Survivors among Foreign-born Patients Presenting to an Urban Ambulatory Care Practice.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 21: 768–784.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deare, J. C., Z. Zheng, C. C. L. Xue, J. P. Liu, J. Shang, S. W. Scott, and G. Littlejohn 2013. “Acupuncture for Treating Fibromyalgia.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (5). Art. No.: CD007070. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007070.pub2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DIGNITY. 2016. Accessed 4 March. https://www.dignityinstitute.org/what-we-do/urban-violence/projects/randomized-controlled-trial-of-treatment-efficacy/
   Google Scholar
• Dülgeroğlu, D. 2000. “Pathology of the Musculoskeletal System Occurring after Torture.” In Annual Report 2000 of Human Rights Foundation of Turkey, 41–47. Ankara: HRFT Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Eccleston, C., S. Morley, and A. Williams. 2013. “Psychological Approaches to Chronic Pain Management: Evidence and Challenges.” British Journal of Anaesthesia 111 (1): 59–63.10.1093/bja/aet207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edston, E. 2005. “Police Torture in Bangladesh - Allegations by Refugees in Sweden.” Torture 15 (1): 16–24.
   Google Scholar
• Edston, E. 2009. “The Epidemiology of Falanga-incidence among Swedish Asylum Seekers.” Torture 19 (1): 27–32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eisenman, D. P., A. S. Keller, and G. Kim. 2000. “Survivors of Torture in a General Medical Setting: How Often Havepatients Been Tortured, and How Often is It Missed?” Western Journal of Medicine 172: 301–304.10.1136/ewjm.172.5.301
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Engeler, D., A. P. Baranowski, J. Borovicka, P. Dinis-Oliveira, S. Elneil, J. Hughes, E. J. Messelink, and A. C. D. C. Williams. 2015. “Guidelines on Chronic Pelvic Pain 2015.” European Association for Urology. https://uroweb.org/guideline/chronic-pelvic-pain/.
   Google Scholar
• Franklin, C. 2001. “Physiotherapy with Torture Survivors.” Physiotherapy 87 (7): 374–377.10.1016/S0031-9406(05)60869-3
   Google Scholar
• Furlan, A. D., M. Giraldo, A. Baskwill, E. Irvin, and M. Imamura 2015. “Massage for Low-back Pain.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (9). Art. No.: CD001929. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001929.pub3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorst-Unsworth, C., and E. Goldenberg. 1998. “Psychological Sequelae of Torture and Organised Violence Suffered by Refugees from Iraq. Trauma-related Factors Compared with Social Factors in Exile.” British Journal of Psychiatry 172: 90–94.10.1192/bjp.172.1.90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grey, N., and K. Young. 2008. “Cognitive Behaviour Therapy with Refugees and Asylum Seekers Experiencing Traumatic Stress Symptoms.” Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 36 (1): 3–19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadjistavropoulos, T., K. D. Craig, S. Duck, A. M. Cano, L. Goubert, P. Jackson, J. Mogil, et al. 2011. “A Biopsychosocial Formulation of Pain Communication.” Psychological Bulletin 137 (6): 910–939. doi:10.1037/a0023876.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heapy, A. A., D. M. Higgins, D. Cervone, L. Wandner, B. T. Fenton, and R. D. Kerns. 2015. “A Systematic Review of Technology-assisted Self-management Interventions for Chronic Pain.” The Clinical Journal of Pain 31 (6): 470–492.10.1097/AJP.0000000000000185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Highfield, E. S., P. Lama, M. A. Grodin, T. J. Kaptchuk, and S. S. Crosby. 2012. “Acupuncture and Traditional Chinese Medicine for Survivors of Torture and Refugee Trauma: A Descriptive Report.” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 14: 433–440.10.1007/s10903-011-9538-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. www.hrw.org.
   Google Scholar
• IASP (International Association for the Study of Pain). “Translated Educational Resources.” Accessed 8 March, 2016. http://www.iasp-pain.org/education/translatedresources?navItemNumber=4353
   Google Scholar
• IASP Recommendations for Pain Treatment Services. http://www.iasp-pain.org/Education/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=1381.
   Google Scholar
• IMMPACT (Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials). http://www.immpact.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Jaranson, J. M., and J. Quiroga. 2011. “Evaluating the Services of Torture Rehabilitation Programs.” Torture 21 (2): 98–140.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jensen, M. P., and D. C. Turk. 2014. “Contributions of Psychology to the Understanding and Treatment of People with Chronic Pain: Why It Matters to ALL Psychologists.” American Psychologist 69 (2): 105–118.10.1037/a0035641
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kagee, A. 2006. “The Relationship between Statement Giving at the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Psychological Distress among Former Political Detainees.” South African Journal of Psychology 36: 10–24.10.1177/008124630603600102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamper, S. J., A. T. Apeldoorn, A. Chiarotto, R. J. Smeets, R. W. J. G. Ostelo, J. Guzman, and M. W. van Tulder. 2014. “Multidisciplinary Biopsychosocial Rehabilitation for Chronic Low Back Pain.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (9). Art. No.: CD000963. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000963.pub3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knaevelsrud, C., B. Wagner, A. Karl, and J. Mueller. 2007. “New Treatment Approaches: Integrating New Media in the Treatment of War and Torture Victims.” Torture 17: 67–78.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lacoux, P., and N. Ford. 2002. “Treatment of Neuropathic Pain in Sierra Leone.” The Lancet Neurology 1 (3) 190-195.10.1016/S1474-4422(02)00075-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legrain, V., G. D. Ianetti, L. Plaghki, and A. Mouraux. 2011. “The Pain Matrix Reloaded: A Salience Detection System for the Body.” Progress in Neurobiology 93: 111–124. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.10.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liedl, A., J. Muller, N. Morina, K. Anker, C. Denke, and C. Knaevelsrud. 2011. “Retracted : Physical Activity within a CBT Intervention Improves Coping with Pain in Traumatized Refugees: Results of a Randomized Controlled Design.” Pain Medicine 12: 234–245.10.1111/j.1526-4637.2010.01040.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linton, S. J. 2000. “A Review of Psychological Risk Factors in Back and Neck Pain.” Spine 25 (9): 1148–1156.10.1097/00007632-200005010-00017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarlane, C. A., and I. Kaplan. 2012. “Evidence-based Psychological Interventions for Adult Survivors of Torture and Trauma: A 30-Year Review.” Transcultural Psychiatry 49: 539–567.10.1177/1363461512447608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merskey, H. 2009. “Somatization: Or Another God That Failed.” Pain 145: 4–5.10.1016/j.pain.2009.04.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merskey, H., and N. Bogduk, eds. 1994. “Part III: Pain Terms, a Current List with Definitions and Notes on Usage.” In Classification of Chronic Pain, Second ed., IASP Task Force on Taxonomy, Seattle, WA: IASP Press, 209-214. http://www.iasp-pain.org/Taxonomy#Pain.
   Google Scholar
• Moisander, P., and E. Edston. 2003. “Torture and Its Sequel: A Comparison between Victims from Six Countries.” Forensic Science International 137 (2–3): 133–140.10.1016/j.forsciint.2003.07.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno, A., and M. Grodin. 2002. “Torture and Its Neurological Sequelae.” Spinal Cord 40 (5): 213–223.10.1038/sj.sc.3101284
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morville, A. L., K. Amris, M. Eklund, B. Danneskiold-Samsoe, and L. K. Erlandsson. 2014. “A Longitudinal Study of Changes in Asylum Seekers Ability regarding Activities of Daily Living during Their Stay in the Asylum Center.” Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 17: 852–859. doi:10.1007/s10903-014-0004-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller, J., A. Karl, C. Denke, F. Mathier, J. Dittmann, N. Rohleder, and C. Knaevelsrud. 2009. “RETRACTED ARTICLE: Biofeedback for Pain Management in Traumatised Refugees.” Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 38 (3): 184–190. doi:10.1080/16506070902815024.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mundt, A. P., P. Wunsch, A. Heinz, and C. Pross. 2014. “Evaluating Interventions for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Low and Middle Income Countries: Narrative Exposure Therapy.” Interventions 12 (2): 250–266.10.1097/WTF.0000000000000001
   Google Scholar
• Musisi, S., E. Kinyanda, H. Liebling, and R. Mayengo-Kiziri. 2000. “Post-traumatic Torture Disorders in Uganda.” Torture 2000 (10): 81–87.
   Google Scholar
• Nampiaparampil, D. E. 2008. “Prevalence of Chronic Pain after Traumatic Brain Injury.” Journal of the American Medical Association 300 (6): 711–719.10.1001/jama.300.6.711
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuner, F., S. Kurreck, M. Ruf, M. Odenwald, T. Elbert, and M. Schauer. 2010. “Can Asylum-Seekers With Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Be Successfully Treated? A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study.” Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 39 (2): 81–91.10.1080/16506070903121042
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Newton-John, T. R. O., S. H. Spence, and D. Schotte. 1995. “Cognitive-behavioural Therapy versus EMG Biofeedback in the Treatment of Chronic Low Back Pain.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (6): 691–697.10.1016/0005-7967(95)00008-L
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norredam, M., S. Crosby, R. Munarriz, L. Piwowarczyk, and M. Grodin. 2005. “Urologic Complications of Sexual Trauma Among Male Survivors of Torture.” Urology 65: 28–32.10.1016/j.urology.2004.08.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Connor, M. 2009. “Can We Prevent Doctors Being Complicit in Torture? Breaking the Serpent’s Egg.” Journal of Law and Medicine 17: 426–438.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Olsen, D., E. Montgomery, S. Bøjholm, and S. Foldspang. 2006a. “Prevalent Musculoskeletal Pain as a Correlate of Previous Exposure to Torture.” Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 34: 496–503.10.1080/14034940600554677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen, D., E. Montgomery, S. Bøjholm, and S. Foldspang. 2007. “Prevalence of Pain in the Head, Back and Feet in Refugees Previously Exposed to Torture: A Ten-year Follow-up Study.” Disability and Rehabilitation 29 (2): 163–171.10.1080/09638280600747645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen, D., E. Montgomery, J. Carlsson, and S. Foldspang. 2006b. “Prevalent Pain and Pain Level among Torture Survivors.” Danish Medical Bulletin 53: 210–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, N., B. Kellezi, and A. C. de C. Williams. 2014. “Psychological, Social and Welfare Interventions for Psychological Health and Well-being of Torture Survivors.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (11). Art. No.: CD009317. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009317.pub2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, N., B. Kellezi, and A. C. de C. Williams. 2016. “Reviewing Outcomes of Psychological Interventions with Torture Survivors: Conceptual, Methodological and Ethical Issues.” Torture 26 (1): 2–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phaneth, S., P. Panha, T. Sopheap, U. Harlacher, and P. Polatin. 2014. “Education as Treatment for Chronic Pain in Survivors of Torture and Other Violent Events in Cambodia: Experiences with Implementation of a Group-based “Pain School” and Evaluation of Its Effect in a Pilot Study.” Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research 19 (1): 53–69.10.1111/jabr.2014.19.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pike, A., L. Hearn, and A. C. de C. Williams. 2016. “Effectiveness of Psychological Interventions for Chronic Pain on Health Care Use and Work Absence: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Pain 157 (4): 777–785.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prip, K., and A. L. Persson. 2008. “Clinical Findings in Men with Chronic Pain after Falanga Torture.” Clinical Journal of Pain 24 (2): 135–141.10.1097/AJP.0b013e31815aac36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prip, K., A. L. Persson, and B. H. Sjolund. 2011. “Self-reported Activity in Tortured Refugees with Long-term Sequelae including Pain and the Impact of Foot Pain from Falanga – A Cross-sectional Study.” Disability and Rehabilitation 33 (7): 569–578.10.3109/09638288.2010.493597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prip, K., A. L. Persson, and B. H. Sjolund. 2012a. “Pain When Walking: Individual Sensory Profiles in the Foot Soles of Torture Victims - a Controlled Study Using Quantitative Sensory Testing.” BMC International Health and Human Rights 12: 179. doi:10.1186/1472-698X-12-40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prip, K., A. L. Persson, and B. H. Sjolund. 2012b. “Sensory Functions in the Foot Soles in Victims of Generalized Torture, in Victims Also Beaten under the Feet (Falanga) and in Healthy Controls – A Blinded Study Using Quantitative Sensory Testing.” BMC International Health and Human Rights 12: 179. doi:10.1186/1472-698X-12-39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pupavac, V. 2006. “Refugees in the ‘Sick Role’: Stereotyping Refugees and Eroding Refugee Rights.” UNHCR Policy Development and Evaluation Service 2006, New Issues in Refugee Research, Research Paper 128. http://www.unhcr.org/44e198712.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, O. V. 1990. “Medical Aspects of Torture.” Danish Medical Bulletin 37: 1–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, O. V. 1991. “The Involvement of Medical Doctors in Torture: The State of the Art.” Journal of Medical Ethics 17 (Suppl): 26–28.10.1136/jme.17.Suppl.26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, O., S. Amris, M. Blaauw, and L. Danielsen. 2005. “Medical Physical Examination in Connection with Torture: Section II.” Torture 15 (1): 37–45.
   Google Scholar
• Robjant, K., and M. Fazel. 2010. “The Emerging Evidence for Narrative Exposure Therapy: A Review.” Clinical Psychology Review 30: 1030–1039.10.1016/j.cpr.2010.07.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rousseau, C. T., T. Measham, and L. Nadeau. 2013. “Addressing Trauma in Collaborative Mental Health Care for Refugee Children.” Clinical Child Psychology & Psychiatry 18 (1): 121–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savnik, A., K. Amris, H. Rogind, K. Prip, B. Danneskiold-Samsoe, F. Bojsen-Moller, et al. 2000. “MRI of the Plantar Structures of the Foot after Falanga Torture.” European Radiology 10 (10): 1655–1659.10.1007/s003300000476
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjölund, B. H., M. Kastrup, E. Montgomery, and A. L. Persson. 2009. “Rehabilitating Torture Survivors.” Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 41: 689–696.10.2340/16501977-0426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonntag, S. 2008. “Doctors’ Involvement in Torture.” Torture 18: 161–175.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Steel, Z., D. Silove, R. Brooks, S. Momartin, B. Alzuhairi, and I. Susljik. 2006. “Impact of Immigration Detention and Temporary Protection on the Mental Health of Refugees.” British Journal of Psychiatry 188: 58–64.10.1192/bjp.bp.104.007864
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Summerfield, D. 2001. “The Invention of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and the Social Usefulness of a Psychiatric Category.” BMJ 322: 95–98.10.1136/bmj.322.7278.95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomsen, A., J. Eriksen, and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. 2000. “Chronic Pain in Torture Survivors.” Forensic Science International 108 (3): 155–163.10.1016/S0379-0738(99)00209-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torp-Pedersen, S., K. Amris, C. C. Holm, M. Konig, K. Prip, and B. Danneskiold-Samsoe. 2009. “Vascular Response to Ischemia in the Feet of Falanga Torture Victims and Normal Controls – Color and Spectral Doppler Findings.” Torture 19 (1): 12–18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tracey, I., and M. C. Bushnell. 2009. “How Neuroimaging Studies Have Challenged Us to Rethink: Is Chronic Pain a Disease?” Journal of Pain 10 (11): 1113–1120.10.1016/j.jpain.2009.09.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turk, D. C., and A. O. Okifuji. 2002. “Psychological Factors in Chronic Pain: Evolution and Revolution.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70: 678–690. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.3.678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2001. Istanbul Protocol: Manual on the Effective Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• Van Ommeren, M., J. T. de Jong, B. Sharma, I. Komproe, S. B. Thapa, and E. Cardena. 2001. “Psychiatric Disorders among Tortured Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal.” Archives of General Psychiatry 58 (5): 475–482.10.1001/archpsyc.58.5.475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vesti, P. B. 1990. “Extreme Man-made Stress and Anti-therapy. Doctors as Collaborators in Torture.” Danish Medical Bulletin 37: 466–468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vickers, A. J., A. M. Cronin, A. C. Maschino, G. Lewith, H. MacPherson, N. E. Foster, K. J. Sherman, et al. 2012. “Acupuncture for Chronic Pain: Individual Patient Data Meta-analysis.” Archives of Internal Medicine 172 (19): 1444–1453. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2012.3654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlaeyen, J. W., and S. J. Linton. 2012. “Fear-avoidance Model of Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain: 12 Years on.” Pain 153 (6): 1144–1147.10.1016/j.pain.2011.12.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall, P. D. 1999. Pain: The Science of Suffering. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, S. J., S. Pacolli, F. Rushiti, B. Rexhaj, and J. Modvig. 2010. “Survivors of War in the Northern Kosovo (II): Baseline Clinical and Functional Assessment and Lasting Effects on the Health of a Vulnerable Population.” Conflict and Health 4: 16. doi:10.1186/1752-1505-4-16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Williams, A. C. de C.. 2002. “Facial Expression of Pain: An Evolutionary Account.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25: 439–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, A. C. de C. 2016. “What Can Evolutionary Theory Tell Us about Chronic Pain?” Pain 157 (4): 788–790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, A., and K. Amris. 2007. “Pain from Torture.” Pain 133 (1–3): 5–8.10.1016/j.pain.2007.10.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, A. C. de C., and K. D. Craig forthcoming. “Updating the Definition of Pain.” Pain.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, A. C. de C., C. Eccleston, and S. Morley. 2012. “Psychological Therapies for the Management of Chronic Pain (excluding Headache) in Adults.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (11). Art. No.: CD007407. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007407.pub3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, A. C. de C., and M. Johnson. 2011. “Debate and Analysis. Persistent Pain: Not a Medically Unexplained Symptom.” British Journal of General Practice 61 (591): 638-639.10.3399/bjgp11X601479
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, A. C. de C., C. R. Peña, and A. S. C Rice. 2010. “Persistent Pain in Survivors of Torture: A Cohort Study.” Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 40: 715–722.10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2010.02.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, A. C. de C., and A. M. Volkmann. 2010. “Understanding Pain from Torture: Cultural Considerations.” Journal of Pain Management 3 (4): 359–365.
   Google Scholar
• Woolf, C. J. 2010. “What is This Thing Called Pain?” Journal of Clinical Investigation 120 (11): 3742–3744.10.1172/JCI45178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan, Q.-L., T.-M. Guo, L. Liu, F. Sun, and Y.-G. Zhang. 2015. “Traditional Chinese Medicine for Neck Pain and Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” PLoS One 10 (2): e0117146. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar