Caught in crossfire: health care workers’ experiences of violence in Syria

References

• Amnesty International. 2015. ‘“Torture Was My Punishment”. Abductions, Torture and Summary Killings under Armed Group Rule in Aleppo and Idlib, Syria’. https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/MDE2442272016ENGLISH.PDF.
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International. 2019. ‘War in Raqqa: Rhetoric versus Reality’. https://raqqa.amnesty.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Atkinson, R., and J. Flint. 2001. ‘Accessing Hard to Reach Populations for Research: Snowball Research Strategies’. Social Research Update. Available at: http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU33.html (Accessed: December 2014).
   Google Scholar
• Baker, A. 2014. ‘Syria’s Health Crisis Spirals As Doctors Flee’. Time. 2014. https://time.com/3968/syrias-health-crisis-spirals-as-doctors-flee/.
   Google Scholar
• Blanchet, K., A. Abbara, F. M. Fouad, A. Coutts, M. Sahloul, and W. Maziak. 2016. “The Effects of Conflict on Syria’s Health System and Human Resources for Health.” World Health & Population 16 (1): 87–95.
   Google Scholar
• Briody, C., L. Rubenstein, L. Roberts, E. Penney, W. Keenan, and J. Horbar. 2018. “Review of Attacks on Health Care Facilitis in Six Conflicts of the past Three Decades.” Conflict and Health 12 (19). doi:10.1186/s13031-018-0152-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cohen, N., and A. Tamar. 2011. “Field Research in Conflict Environments: Methodological Challenges and Snowball Sampling.” Journal of Peace Research 48 (4): 423–435. doi:10.1177/0022343311405698.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cousins, S. 2014. ‘Syria Doctors Flee amid Crackdown’. Al-Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/syria-doctors-flee-amid-crackdown-2014227125225358518.html.
   Google Scholar
• Druce, P., E. Bogatyreva, F. F. Siem, S. Gates, H. Kaade, J. Sundby, M. Rostrup, et al. 2019. “Approaches to Protect and Maintain Health Care Services in Armed Conflict - Meeting SDGs 3 and 16.” Conflict and Health 13 (1). doi:10.1186/s13031-019-0186-0.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elamein, M., H. Bower, C. Valderrama, D. Zedan, H. Rihawi, K. Almilaji, M. Abdelhafeez, et al. 2017a. “Attacks against Health Care in Syria, 2015–16: Results from a Real-Time Reporting Tool.” The Lancet 390 (10109): 2278–2286. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31328-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elamein, M., H. Bower, C. Valderrama, D. Zedan, H. Rihawi, K. Almilaji, M. Abdelhafeez, N. Tabbal, N. Almhawish, and S. Maes. 2017b. “Attacks against Health Care in Syria, 2015-16: Results from a Real-Time Reporting Tool.” The Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31328-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fardousi, N., Y. Douedari, and N. Howard. 2019. “Healthcare under Siege: A Qualitative Study of Health-Worker Responses to Targeting and Besiegement in Syria.” BMJ Open 9 (9): e029651. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Footer, K. H. A., E. Clouse, D. Reyes, Z. Sahloul, and L. S. Rubenstein. 2018. “Qualitative Accounts from Syrian Health Professionals regarding Violations of the Right to Health, Including the Use of Chemical Weapons, in Opposition-Held Syria.” BMJ Open 8: e021096. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-021096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Footer, K. H. A., S. Meyer, S. G. Sherman, and L. Rubenstein. 2014. “On the Frontline of Eastern Burma’s Chronic Conflict. Listening to the Voices of Local Health Workers.” Social Science & Medicine 120: 378–386. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.02.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fouad, F. M., A. Sparrow, A. Tarakji, M. Alameddine, F. El-Jardali, A. P. Coutts, N. E. Arnaout, et al. 2018. “Health Workers and the Weaponisation of Health Care in Syria: A Preliminary Inquiry for the Lancet–American University of Beirut Commission on Syria.” The Lancet. Lancet Publishing Group. 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30741-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack. 2018. ‘Education Under Attack 2018 - Syria’.
   Google Scholar
• Haar, R. J., C. B. Risko, S. Singh, D. Rayes, A. Albalk, M. Alnajar, M. Kewara, E. Clouse, E. Baker, and L. S. Rubenstein. 2018. “Determining the Scope of Attacks on Health in Four Governorates of Syria in 2016: Results of a Field Surveillance Program.” PLoS Medicine. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heller, S. 2016. ‘A Syria Policy for Trump’s America’. https://tcf.org/content/report/syria-policy-trumps-america/?agreed=1.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Council. 2013. ‘Human Rights Situations that Require the Council’s Attention: Assault on Medical Care in Syria’.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Council. 2017. ‘Human Rights Abuses and International Humanitarian Law Violations in the Syrian Arab Republic, 21 July 2016-28 February 2017* Conference Room Paper of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic’.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. 2014. ‘Under Kurdish Rule Abuses in PYD-Run Enclaves of Syria’. https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0614_kurds_ForUpload.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. 2019. ‘World Report 2019. Events of 2018ʹ.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. 2020. ‘Targeting Life in Idlib. Syrian and Russian Strikes on Civilian Infrastructure’. https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/10/15/targeting-life-idlib/syrian-and-russian-strikes-civilian-infrastructure.
   Google Scholar
• ICRC. 1949. ‘The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Their Additional Protocols’. International Committee of the Red Cross.
   Google Scholar
• ICRC. 1977. Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949.
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan, C. D., D. Korf, and C. Sterk. 1987. “Temporal and Social Contexts of Heroin-Using Population: An Illustration of the Snowball Sampling.” Journal of Mental and Nervous Disorders 9 (175): 566–574. doi:10.1097/00005053-198709000-00009.
   Google Scholar
• Lafta, R. K., and N. Falah. 2019. “Violence against Health-Care Workers in a Conflict Affected City.” Medicine, Conflict, and Survival. doi:10.1080/13623699.2018.1540095.
   Google Scholar
• Lister, C. 2015. The Syrian Jihad: Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and the Evolution of an Insurgency. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Michlig, G. J., R. Lafta, M. Al-Nuaimi, and G. Burnham. 2019. “Providing Healthcare under ISIS: A Qualitative Analysis of Healthcare Worker Experiences in Mosul, Iraq between June 2014 and June 2017.” Global Public Health 14 (10): 1414–1427. doi:10.1080/17441692.2019.1609061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, P., F. Gibson-Fall, R. Sullivan, and R. Irwin. 2017. “Documenting Attacks on Health Workers and Facilities in Armed Conflicts.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 95 (1): 79–81. doi:10.2471/BLT.15.168328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Physicians for Human Rights. 2019. ‘Physicians for Human Rights’ Findings of Attacks on Health Care in Syria’. Physicians for Human Rights.
   Google Scholar
• Physicians for Human Rights. 2020. ‘Medical Personnel are Targeted in Syria’. 2020. https://phr.org/our-work/resources/medical-personnel-are-targeted-in-syria/.
   Google Scholar
• Ri, S., A. H. Blair, C. J. Kim, and R. J. Haar. 2019. “Attacks on Healthcare Facilities as an Indicator of Violence against Civilians in Syria: An Exploratory Analysis of Open-Source Data.” PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RT Question More. 2015. ‘Combat Report: Russia Flies 107 Sorties in Syria Eliminating 289 Terror Targets in 2 Days’. https://www.rt.com/news/321818-russia-syria-terror-strike/.
   Google Scholar
• Rubenstein, L. S., and M. D. Bittle. 2010. “Responsibility for Protection of Medical Workers and Facilities in Armed Conflict.” The Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61926-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Security Council. 2016. ‘Security Council Adopts Resolution 2286 (2016), Strongly Condemning Attacks against Medical Facilities, Personnel in Conflict Situations | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases’. United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• Stern, J., and J. M. Berger. 2015. ISIS. The State of Terror. New York: HarperCollinsPublishers.
   Google Scholar
• The Global Coalition against Daesh. 2020. ‘The Global Coalition against Daesh’. https://theglobalcoalition.org/en/.
   Google Scholar
• The Safeguarding Health in Conflict Coalition. 2020. ‘Health Workers at Risk: Violence against Health Care’. https://www.safeguardinghealth.org/sites/shcc/files/SHCC2020final.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• The World Health Organization. n.d. ‘Classifying Health Workers: Mapping Occupations of the International Standard Classification’.
   Google Scholar
• Uppsala Conflict Data Program UCDP. 2015. ‘UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia’. UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia.
   Google Scholar
• WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean 2019. ‘HeRAMS Annual Reports. January - December 2019. Public Hospitals in the Syrian Arab Republic’.
   Google Scholar
• Wong, C. H., and C. Y. T. Chen. 2018. “Ambulances under Siege in Syria.” BMJ Global Health 3 (6). doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2018-001003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2002. ‘World Report on Violence and Health: Summary’. Geneva.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2016a. ‘Report on Attacks on Health Care in Emergencies. Based on Consolidated Data 2014 and 2015ʹ. https://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/attacksreport.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. 2016b. ‘WHO | WHO Condemns Massive Attacks on Five Hospitals in Syria’. WHO. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/attacks-hospitals-syria/en/.
   Google Scholar
• Ziadeh, R. 2013. Ziadeh R. Power and Policy in Syria. Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Middle East. New York: I.B. Tauris&Co.
   Google Scholar