References
- Abdelal, R., Herrera, Y., Johnston, A. I., & McDermott, R. (2006). Identity as a variable. Perspectives on Politics, 4(4), 695–711. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592706060440
- Abdo, G. (2017). The new sectarianism: The Arab uprisings and the rebirth of the Shi’a-Sunni divide. Oxford University Press.
- Akdedian, H. (2019). Ethno-religious belonging in the Syrian conflict: Between communitarianism and sectarianization. Middle East Journal, 73(3), 417–437. https://doi.org/10.3751/73.3.14
- AlKhatib, W., Robbins, M., Shutaywi, M., Jamal, A., Tessler, M., Shiqaqi, K., Meddeb, Y., Haber, R., Mezlini, I., Latif, H., & Abderebbi, M. (2018). Arab barometer: Public opinion survey conducted in Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestine, and Tunisia, 2016. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR37029.v1
- Bank, A. (2018). Comparative area studies and the study of Middle East politics after the Arab uprisings. In A. Ahram, P. Köllner, & R. Sil (Eds.), Comparative area studies: Methodological rationales and cross-regional applications (pp. 119–129). Oxford University Press.
- Bank, A., & Busse, J. (2021). MENA political science research a decade after the Arab uprisings: Facing the facts on tremulous grounds. Mediterranean Politics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2021.1889285
- Benstead, L. J. (2015). Why do some Arab citizens see democracy as unsuitable for their country? Democratization, 22(7), 1183‒1208. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.940041
- Biglari, M. (2016). “Captive to the demonology of the Iranian mobs”: U.S. foreign policy and perceptions of Shi’a Islam during the Iranian revolution, 1978–79. Diplomatic History, 40(4), 579–605. https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhv034
- Bishara, A. (2018). Ta’ifah, sect and sectarianism: From the word and its changing implications to the analytical sociological term. AlMuntaqa, 1(2), 53‒67. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.31430/almuntaqa.1.2.0053
- Brooke, S. (2017). Sectarianism and social conformity: Evidence from Egypt. Political Research Quarterly, 70(4), 848‒860. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912917717641
- Brubaker, R. (2015). Religious dimensions of political conflict and violence. Sociological Theory, 33(1), 1‒19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735275115572153
- Busse, J. (2018). ASC 2.0 ‒ The area studies controversy revisited. APSA-MENA Newsletter, 5(5), 29‒32. http://web.apsanet.org/mena/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2018/11/APSA_MENA_Newsletter_Fall_2018._Final.02.pdf
- Byman, D. (2014). Sectarianism afflicts the new Middle East. Survival, 56(1), 79‒100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2014.882157
- Cammett, M. (2019, April 10). Lebanon, the sectarian identity test lab. The Century Foundation. https://tcf.org/content/report/lebanon-sectarian-identity-test-lab/
- Clark, J. A., & Cavatorta, F. (2018). Introduction: The methodological and ethical challenges of conducting research in the Middle East and North Africa. In J. A. Clark & F. Cavatorta (Eds.), Political science research in the Middle East and North Africa: Methodological and ethical challenges (pp. 1–22). Oxford University Press.
- Cole, J., & Keddie, N. (Eds). (1986). Shiism and social protest. Yale University Press.
- Cook, M. (1999). Weber and Islamic sects. In T. E. Huff & W. Schluchter (Eds.), Max Weber & Islam (pp. 273–279). Transaction Publishers.
- Corboz, E. (2019). Shi’i clerical networks and the transnational contest over sacred authority: Dynamics in London’s Shi’i triangle. Global Discourse, 9(4), 721–739. https://doi.org/10.1332/204378919X15718900164069
- Corstange, D. (2013). Ethnicity on the sleeve and class in the heart. British Journal of Political Science, 43(4), 889‒914. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123412000592
- Darwich, M., & Fakhoury, T. (2016). Casting the other as an existential threat: The securitisation of sectarianism in the international relations of the Syria crisis. Global Discourse, 6(4), 712–732. https://doi.org/10.1080/23269995.2016.1259231
- Davis, E. (2008). Pensé 3: A sectarian Middle East? International Journal of Middle East Studies, 40(4), 555‒558. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743808081476
- Deeb, L. (2020). Beyond sectarianism: Intermarriage and social difference in Lebanon. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 52(2), 215–228. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743819000898
- Dodge, T. (2014). Seeking to explain the rise of sectarianism in the Middle East: The case study of Iraq. POMEPS Studies, 25, 30‒35. https://pomeps.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Visions_of_Gulf_Security.pdf
- Dodge, T. (2020a). Beyond structure and agency: Rethinking political identities in Iraq after 2003. Nations and Nationalism, 26(1), 108‒122. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12579
- Dodge, T. (2020b). Between Wataniyya and Ta’ifia; understanding the relationship between state-based nationalism and sectarian identity in the Middle East. Nations and Nationalism, 26(1), 85‒90. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12580
- Fawcett, L. (2020). International relations and the Middle East: Bringing area studies (Back) in. St Antony’s International Review, 16(1), 177–183. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/stair/stair/2020/00000016/00000001/art00013
- Fibiger, T. (2015). Heritage erasure and heritage transformation: How heritage is created by destruction in Bahrain. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 21(4), 390‒404. https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2014.930064
- Fibiger, T. (2020). Mom, are we Shi’a? Neg(oti)ating sectarian identity in everyday life in post-2011 Bahrain. The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 18(1), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2020.1729523
- Finnbogason, D., Larsson, G., & Svensson, I. (2019). Is Shia‒Sunni violence on the rise? Exploring new data on intra-Muslim organised violence 1989‒2017. Civil Wars, 21(1), 25‒53. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2019.1595881
- Gaiser, A. (2017). A narrative identity approach to Islamic sectarianism. In N. A. Hashemi & D. Postel (Eds.), Sectarianization: Mapping the new politics of the Middle East (pp. 61‒75). Hurst Publishers.
- Gallie, W. B. (1956). Essentially contested concepts. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 56(1), 167‒198. https://doi.org/10.1093/aristotelian/56.1.167
- Gause, F. G. (2007). Saudi Arabia: Iraq, Iran, the regional power balance, and the sectarian question. Strategic Insights, 6(2), 1–8. http://www.nps.edu/Academics/centers/ccc/publications/OnlineJournal/2007/Mar/gauseMar07.pdf
- Gause, F. G. (2013, June 8). Sectarianism and the politics of the new Middle East. Brookings Upfront Blog. http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2013/06/08-sectarianism-politics-new-middle-east-gause
- Gause, F. G. (2014). Beyond sectarianism: The new Middle East cold war. Brookings Doha Center - Analysis Paper No.: 11. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/English-PDF-1.pdf
- Gause, F. G. (2017). Ideologies, alignments, and underbalancing in the New Middle East Cold War. PS, Political Science & Politics, 50(3), 672–675. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096517000373
- Geertz, C. (1993). The interpretation of cultures. Fontana Press.
- Gengler, J. (2013). Understanding sectarianism in the Persian Gulf. In L. G. Potter (Ed.), Sectarian politics in the Persian Gulf (pp. 31‒66). Hurst and Company.
- Gengler, J. (2017, October 20). The dangers of unscientific surveys in the Arab world. Washington Post - The Monkey Cage. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/10/20/the-dangers-of-weaponized-survey-research-in-the-arab-world/
- Gengler, J. (2019). Segregation and sectarianism: Geography, economic distribution, and sectarian resilience in Bahrain. In J. Martini, D. Kaya, & B. Wasser (Eds.), Countering sectarianism in the Middle East (pp. 41–63). RAND Corporation.
- Gengler, J. (2020). Sectarianism from the top down or bottom up? Explaining the Middle East’s unlikely de-sectarianization after the Arab Spring. The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 18(1), 109‒113. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2020.1729526
- Ghosn, F., & Parkinson, S. E. (2019). “Finding” sectarianism and strife in Lebanon. PS, Political Science & Politics, 52(3), 494‒497. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096519000143
- Giddens, A. (1987). Social theory and modern sociology. Polity.
- Haddad, F. (2011). Sectarianism in Iraq: Antagonistic visions of unity. Hurst Publishers.
- Haddad, F. (2017). ‘Sectarianism’ and its discontents in the study of the Middle East. Middle East Journal, 71(3), 363‒382. https://doi.org/10.3751/71.3.12
- Haddad, F. (2020a). Anti-Sunnism and anti-Shiism: Minorities, majorities and the question of equivalence. Mediterranean Politics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2020.1718367
- Haddad, F. (2020b). Understanding ‘sectarianism’: Sunni‒Shi’a relations in the modern Arab World. Hurst Publishers.
- Hafidh, H., & Fibiger, T. (2019). Civic space and sectarianism in the Gulf states: Dynamics of informal civil society in Kuwait and Bahrain beyond state institutions. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 19(1), 109–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/sena.12290
- Hashemi, N. A., & Postel, D. (2017). Introduction: The sectarianization thesis. In N. A. Hashemi & D. Postel (Eds.), Sectarianization: Mapping the new politics of the Middle East (pp. 1‒22). Hurst Publishers.
- Headland, T. N., Pike, K. L., & Harris, M. (1990). Emics and etics: The insider/outsider debate. Sage.
- Heydemann, S. (2013a). Syria’s uprising: Sectarianism, regionalisation, and state order in the Levant (FRIDE Working Paper No. 119).
- Heydemann, S. (2013b). Syria and the future of authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 24(4), 59‒73. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2013.0067
- Hinnebusch, R. (2016). The sectarian revolution in the Middle East. R/evolutions: Global Trends & Regional Issues, 4(1), 120‒152. http://revjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/REV4/08_rev4_hinnebusch.pdf
- Hinnebusch, R. (2019). Sectarianism and governance in Syria. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 19(1), 41–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/sena.12288
- Huntington, S. P. (1993). The clash of civilizations? Foreign Affairs, 72(3), 22‒49. https://doi.org/10.2307/20045621
- Jacoby, T. (2017). Culturalism and the rise of the Islamic state: Faith, sectarianism and violence. Third World Quarterly, 38(7), 1655‒1673. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1282818
- Josua, M., & Edel, M. (2021). The Arab uprisings and the return of repression. Mediterranean Politics. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2021.1889298
- Kerr, M. (2007). Approaches to power-sharing in Northern Ireland and Lebanon. In R. Miller (Ed.), Ireland and the Middle East: Trade, society and peace (pp. 138‒150). Irish Academic Press.
- Kramer, M. (Ed). (1987). Shi’ism, resistance, and revolution. Mansell.
- Louër, L. (2013). Sectarianism and coup-proofing strategies in Bahrain. Journal of Strategic Studies, 36(2), 245–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2013.790314
- Lynch, M. (Ed). (2014). The Arab uprisings explained - New contentious politics in the Middle East. Columbia University Press.
- Mabon, S. (2019). Saudi Arabia and Iran: Islam and foreign policy in the Middle East. In S. Akbarzadeh (Ed.), Routledge handbook of international relations in the Middle East (pp. 138‒152). Routledge.
- Mabon, S. (2019). Sectarian games: Sovereign power, war machines and regional order in the Middle East. Middle East Law and Governance, 11(3), 283–318. https://doi.org/10.1163/18763375-01201001
- Mabon, S. (2020). Houses built on sand: Sovereignty, violence and revolution in the Middle East. Manchester University Press.
- Mabon, S., & Ardovini, L. (2016). People, sects and states: Interrogating sectarianism in the contemporary Middle East. Global Discourse, 6(4), 551‒560. https://doi.org/10.1080/23269995.2016.1259234
- Mabon, S., & Lynch, M. (2020). Sectarianism and international relations. POMEPS Studies, 38, 3–5. https://pomeps.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/POMEPS_Studies_38_Web.pdf
- Majed, R. (2020). The theoretical and methodological traps in studying sectarianism in the Middle East: Neo-primordialism and ‘clichéd constructivism’. In L. Sadiki (Ed.), Routledge handbook of Middle East politics (pp. 540–553). Routledge.
- Makdisi, U. (2019). Age of coexistence: The ecumenical frame and the making of the modern Arab World. University of California Press.
- Malmvig, H. (2015). Coming in from the Cold: How we may take sectarian identity politics seriously in the Middle East without playing to the tunes of regional power elites. POMEPS Studies, 16, 32‒36. https://pomeps.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/POMEPS_Studies_16_IR_Web1.pdf
- Malmvig, H. (2020). Soundscapes of war: The audio-visual performance of war by Shi’a militias in Iraq and Syria. International Affairs, 96(3), 649–666. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiaa057
- Malmvig, H. (2021). Allow me this one time to speak as a Shi’i: The sectarian taboo, music videos and the securitization of sectarian identity politics in Hezbollah’s legitimation of its military involvement in Syria. Mediterranean Politics, 26(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2019.1666230
- Maoz, M. (2007) The “Shi’i Crescent”: Myth and reality. Brookings Institute - Saban Center Analysis Paper No. 15. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/11_middle_east_maoz.pdf
- Maréchal, B., & Zemni, S. (Eds). (2013). The dynamics of Sunni-Shia relationships - Doctrine, transnationalism, intellectuals and the media. Hurst.
- Mathie, N. (2016). “Jewish sectarianism” and the State of Israel. Global Discourse, 6(4), 601‒629. https://doi.org/10.1080/23269995.2016.1259284
- Matthiesen, T. (2013). Sectarian Gulf: Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and the Arab Spring that wasn’t. Stanford University Press.
- Matthiesen, T. (2015). The other Saudis: Shiism, dissent and sectarianism. Cambridge University Press.
- Nasr, V. (2007). The Shia revival: How conflicts within Islam will shape the future: With a new afterword. Norton.
- Nasr, V. (2017). International politics, domestic imperatives, and identity mobilization. In N. A. Hashemi & D. Postel (Eds.), Sectarianization: Mapping the new politics of the Middle East (pp. 77‒99). Hurst.
- Norton, A. R. (2007). Hizbollah - A short history. Princeton University Press.
- Nugent, E. R. (2019). New innovations in public opinion research in the broader Mediterranean region. Mediterranean Politics, 24(3), 376‒383. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2017.1419811
- Pace, M., & Cavatorta, F. (2012). The Arab uprisings in theoretical perspective: An introduction. Mediterranean Politics, 17(2), 125‒138. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2012.694040
- Pew Research Center. (2014) The Sunni‒Shia divide: Where they live, what they believe and how they view each other. PEW FacTank. Available at http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/06/18/the-sunni-shia-divide-where-they-live-what-they-believe-and-how-they-view-each-other/.
- Pew Research Center. (2016, January 7). The Middle East’s sectarian divide on views of Saudi Arabia, Iran. PEW FactTank. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/01/07/the-middle-easts-sectarian-divide-on-views-of-saudi-arabia-iran/
- Phillips, C. (2015). Sectarianism and conflict in Syria. Third World Quarterly, 36(2), 357‒376. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1015788
- Phillips, C., & Valbjørn, M. (2018). ‘What is in a name?’: The role of (different) identities in the multiple proxy wars in Syria. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 29(3), 414‒433. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2018.1455328
- Potter, L. G. (2013). Introduction. In L. G. Potter (Ed.), Sectarian politics in the Persian Gulf (pp. 1‒29). Hurst Publishers.
- Riexinger, M. (2019). Gammelt had eller nutidskonflikter? Et moyenne durée-perspektiv på aktuelle sekteriske konflikter. TIFO: Tidsskrift for Islamforskning (Islamic Studies Journal), 13(1), 87–111. https://doi.org/10.7146/tifo.v13i1.112227
- Said, E. (1978). Orientalism - Western conceptions of the orient. Routledge.
- Salamandra, C. (2013). Sectarianism in Syria: Anthropological reflections. Middle East Critique, 22(3), 303‒306. https://doi.org/10.1080/19436149.2013.818195
- Salamey, I. (2016). The double movement and post-Arab spring consociationalism. The Muslim World, 106(1), 187‒204. https://doi.org/10.1111/muwo.12132
- Saleh, A., & Kraetzschmar, H. (2015). Politicized identities, securitized politics: Sunni‒Shi‘a politics in Egypt. Middle East Journal, 69(4), 545‒562. https://doi.org/10.3751/69.4.13
- Salloukh, B. F. (2017). Overlapping contests and Middle East international relations: The return of the weak Arab state. PS, Political Science & Politics, 50(3), 660–663. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096517000348
- Salloukh, B. F. (2020). Consociational power-sharing in the Arab World: A critical stocktaking. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 20(2), 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/sena.12325
- Salloukh, B. F., Barakat, R., Al-Habbal, K. L., & Mikaelian, S. (2015). The politics of sectarianism in postwar Lebanon. Pluto Press.
- Saouli, A. (2019). Sectarianism and political order in Iraq and Lebanon. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 19(1), 67‒87. https://doi.org/10.1111/sena.12291
- Shockley, B., & Gengler, J. (2020, October). Social identity and coethnic voting in the Middle East: Experimental evidence from Qatar. Electoral Studies, 67, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102213
- Siegel, A. (2015, December). Sectarian Twitter wars: Sunni‒Shia conflict and cooperation in the digital age. Carnegie Middle East Program. http://carnegieendowment.org/files/CP_262_Siegel_Sectarian_Twitter_Wars_.pdf
- Sil, R., & Katzenstein, P. (2010). Beyond paradigms: Analytic eclecticism in the study of world politics. Palgrave.
- Stevens, M. L., Miller-Idriss, C., & Shami, S. K. (2018). Seeing the world:How US universities make knowledge in a global era. Princeton University Press.
- Susser, A. (2006). Aufgang des schiitischen Halbmonds - Der Krieg im Libanon under der Neue Nahe Osten. Internationale Politik, 61(9), 68‒73. https://internationalepolitik.de/de/aufgang-des-schiitischen-halbmonds
- Szanton, D. L. (Ed). (2003). The politics of knowledge: Area studies and the disciplines. University of California Press.
- Tessler, M., Nachtway, J., & Banda, A. (1999). Introduction: The area studies controversy. In M. Tessler, M. A. Tessler, J. Nachtwey, A. Banda, & A. Dressel (Eds.), Area studies and social sciences: Strategies for understanding Middle East politics (pp. vii‒xxi). Indiana University Press.
- Tessler, M. (2019). Introduction: Reflections on scholarship and fieldwork in the Middle East and North Africa. PS, Political Science & Politics, 52(3), 481–484. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096519000271
- Teti, A. (2007). Bridging the gap: IR, Middle East studies and the disciplinary politics of the area studies controversy. European Journal of International Relations, 13(1), 117‒145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066107074291
- Troeltsch, E. (1949). The social teaching of the Christian churches. Allen & Unwin.
- Valbjørn, M. (2004). Toward a ‘mesopotamian turn’: Disciplinarity and the study of the international relations of the Middle East. Journal of Mediterranean Studies, 14(1‒2), 47‒75. https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/670360
- Valbjørn, M. (2015). Reflections on self-reflections: On framing the analytical implications of the Arab uprisings for the study of Arab politics. Democratization, 22(2), 218‒238. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2015.1010808
- Valbjørn, M. (2017). Strategies for reviving the international relations/Middle East nexus after the Arab uprisings. PS, Political Science & Politics, 50(3), 647‒651. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096517000312
- Valbjørn, M. (2019a). Dialogues in new Middle Eastern politics: On (the limits of) making historical analogies to the classic Arab cold war in a sectarianized new Middle East. In L. Kamel (Ed.), The Middle East: Thinking about and beyond security and stability (pp. 173‒197). Peter Lang.
- Valbjørn, M. (2019b). What’s so sectarian about sectarian politics? Identity politics and authoritarianism in a new Middle East. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 19(1), 127‒149. https://doi.org/10.1111/sena.12289
- Valbjørn, M. (2020). Beyond the beyond(s): On the (many) third way(s) beyond primordialism and instrumentalism in the study of sectarianism. Nations and Nationalism, 26(1), 91‒107. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12581
- Valbjørn, M., & Bank, A. (2007). Signs of a new Arab cold war: The 2006 Lebanon war and the Sunni‒Shi‘i divide. Middle East Report, 37(1), 6‒11. https://merip.org/2007/03/signs-of-a-new-arab-cold-war/
- Valbjørn, M., & Gunning, J. (2020). Bringing in the ‘other Islamists’: Beyond Sunni-centric Islamism studies in a sectarianized Middle East. Mediterranean Politics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2020.1718371
- Valbjørn, M., & Hinnebusch, R. (2019). Exploring the nexus between sectarianism and regime formation in a new Middle East: Theoretical points of departure. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 19(1), 2‒22. https://doi.org/10.1111/sena.12293
- Wagemakers, J. (2020). Making sense of sectarianism without sects: Quietist Salafi anti-Shia discourse in Jordan. Mediterranean Politics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2020.1718354
- Weber, M. (1968). Economy and society: An outline of interpretative sociology. Bedminster Press.
- Wehrey, F. (2013). Sectarian politics in the Gulf: From the Iraq war to the Arab uprisings. Columbia University Press.
- Weiss, M. (2010). In the shadow of sectarianism: Law, Shi’ism, and the making of modern Lebanon. Harvard University Press.
- Wells, M. (2017). Sectarianism, authoritarianism and opposition in Kuwait. In N. A. Hashemi & D. Postel (Eds.), Sectarianization: Mapping the new politics of the Middle East (pp. 235–257). Hurst.
- Zelin, A., & Smyth, P. (2014, January 29). The vocabulary of sectarianism. Foreign Policy ‒ The Middle East channel. http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/29/the-vocabulary-of-sectarianism/
- Zhao, S. (1991). Metatheory, metamethod, meta-data-analysis: What, why, and how? Sociological Perspectives, 34(3), 377‒390. https://doi.org/10.2307/1389517
- Zogby, J. (2013, March 5). Looking at Iran: How 20 Arab and Muslim nations view Iran and its policies. Zogby Research Services. http://www.aaiusa.org/page/-/Images/Polls/LookingAtIranPoll3_5_13.pdf