1,211
Views
23
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

The precautionary principle and risk‐risk tradeoffs

, &
Pages 423-464 | Published online: 11 Jul 2008

References

  • Adler , J. H. 2002 . “ The precautionary principle's challenge to progress. ” . In Global warming and other eco‐myths , Edited by: Bailey , R . 265 – 92 . California, LA : Prima Publishing .
  • AHI . 2005 . Member companies . Animal Health Institute. http://www.ahi.org/aboutAHI/member_comp.asp
  • Andersen , S. O. and Madhave Sarme , K. 2002 . Protecting the ozone layer , London : United Nations Environment Programme ‐ Earthscan Press .
  • Anonymous . 1995 . Study finds ultraviolet effluent treatment efficient and cost‐effective. . Civil Engineering , 65 : 24
  • Ashford , N. A. 2002 . “ Implementing a precautionary approach in decisions affecting health, safety, and the environment: Risk, technology alternatives, and tradeoff analysis. ” . In The role of precaution in chemicals policy, Favorita Papers 01/2002 , Edited by: Freytag , E , Jakl , T , Loibl , G and Wittmann , M . 128 – 40 . Vienna : Diplomatic Academy .
  • Ashford , N. A. , Banoutos , I. , Christiansen , K. , Hummelmose , B. and Stratikopoulos , D. 1996 . “ Evaluation of the relevance for worker health and safety of existing environmental technology data‐bases for cleaner and inherently safer technologies. ” . Report to the Commission of the European Union, April 1996, Ergonomia LTD, Athens, Greece
  • Barett , K. and Raffensperger , C. 1999 . “ Precautionary science. ” . In Protecting public health and the environment implementing the precautionary principle , Edited by: Raffensperger , C and Tickner , J. A . 106 – 23 . Washington, DC : Island Press .
  • Barker , J. F. , Hubbard , E. and Lemon , L. A. 1990 . “ The influence of methanol and MTBE on the fate of persistence of monoaromatic hydrocarbons in groundwater. ” . In Proceedings of Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Groundwater Prevention, Detection, and Restoration, Oct. 31–Nov. 2, 1990 , 113 – 27 . Houston, Texas : American Petroleum Institute and Association of Groundwater Scientists and Engineers .
  • Beral , V. , Banks , E. and Reeves , G. 2002 . Evidence from randomized trials on the long‐term effects of hormone replacement therapy. . The Lancet , 360 ( 9337 ) : 942 – 4 .
  • CalEPA . 1999 . Public health goal for methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) in drinking water. Pesticide and environmental toxicology section , Sacramento, CA : Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Environmental Protection Agency .
  • CalEPA . 2005 . “ Chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity, March 4, 2005. ” . State of California Environmental Protection Agency Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986
  • Casewell , M. , Friis , C. , Marco , E. , McMullin , P. and Phillips , I. 2003 . The European ban on growth‐promoting antibiotics and emerging consequences for human and animal health. . Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy , 52 ( 2 ) : 159 – 61 .
  • Cavanagh , J. E. , Weinberg , H. S. , Gold , A. , Sangaiah , R. , Marbury , D. , Glaze , W. H. , Collette , T. W. , Richardson , S. D. and Thruston , A. D. 1992 . Ozonation byproducts: Identification of bromohydrins from the ozonation of natural waters with enhanced bromide levels. . Environmental Science & Technology , 26 : 1658 – 62 .
  • Collignon , P. 2004 . Antibiotic growth promoters. . Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy , 54 ( 1 ) : 272
  • Cross , F. B. 1996 . Paradoxical perils of the precautionary principle. . Washington & Lee Law Review , 53 : 851 – 925 .
  • EC Council . 1998 . Council Regulation (EC) No 2821/98 of 17 December 1998 amending, as regards withdrawal of the authorisation of certain antibiotics, Directive 70/524/EEC concerning additives in feedingstuffs. . Official Journal of the European Communities , L351, 29/12/1998 : P.0004 – 0008 .
  • Environmental Working Group . 2004 . Ten years later. Myth of ‘alar scare’ persists how chemical industry rewrote history of banned pesticide. . http://www.ewg.org/pub/home/reports/alar/alar.htm
  • Environmental Working Group . 2005 . MTBE: What the oil companies knew and when they knew it . http://www.ewg.org/reports/withknowledge/index2.php
  • DeWitt & Company Inc . 2000 . MTBE and oxygenates 2000 annual , Houston, TX : DeWitt & Company Inc .
  • ESC . 1998 . Opinion of the Economic and Social Committee on the resistance to antibiotics as a threat to public health (own‐initiative opinion), CES 1118‐1998_ ac_en.doc, Bruxelles, 9 September 1998 , Bruxelles : Economic and Social Committee .
  • European Environmental Agency . 2001 . Late lessons from early warnings: The precautionary principle 1986–2000 , Luxembourg : Office for Official Publications of the European Communities . Environmental issues report No. 22
  • Farman , J. 2001 . “ Halocarbons, the ozone layer and the precautionary principle. ” . In Late lessons from early warnings: The precautionary principle 1986–2000 , Edited by: Harremoës , P . 76 – 83 . Luxembourg : Office for Official Publications of the European Communities . European Environmental Agency. Environmental issues report No. 22
  • Frøkjær Jensen , V. , Neimann , J. , Hammerum , A. M. , Mølbak , K. and Wegener , H. 2004 . Does the use of antibiotics in food animals pose a risk to human health? An unbiased review? . Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy , 54 ( 1 ) : 274 – 5 .
  • Fumento , M. 1990 . The politics of cancer testing. . American Spectator , 23 : 18 – 24 .
  • Garrett , P. , Moreau , M. and Lowry , J. D. 1986 . MTBE as a ground water contaminant. . http://www.ewg.org/reports_content/withknowledge/pdf/074_008.pdf
  • Graham , J. D. 2004 . The perils of the precautionary principle: Lessons from the American and European experience Heritage Lecture #818 January 15 2004. The Heritage Foundation
  • Graham , J. D. and Wiener , J. B. 1995 . Risk vs. risk: Tradeoffs in protecting public health and the environment , Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
  • Grandjean , P. 2003 . The precautionary principle ‐ implications for research and prevention in environmental and occupational health. . European Journal of Oncology , 2 : 17 – 19 .
  • Gumz , J. 2001 . Lessons learned from MTBE cleanup is difficult, costly and time‐consuming. . Santa Cruz Sentinel , April : 2
  • Hatziandreu , E. , Williams , C. and Graham , J. D. 1995 . “ Estrogen therapy for menopause. ” . In Risk vs. risk tradeoffs in protecting public health and the environment , Edited by: Graham , J. D and Wiener , J. B . 42 – 52 . Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
  • Institute of Food Technologists . 1998 . How and why to use sodium nitrite and nitrate: An update document number: 121012637. . http://www.askthemeatman.com/how_and_why_to_use_sodium_nitrite.htm
  • IARC . 1987 . IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans overall evaluations of carcinogenicity: An updating of IARC Monographs Volumes 1 to 42 Supplement 7 , Lyon, , France : World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer .
  • IARC . 1999a . IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans Volume 73. Some chemicals that cause tumours of the kidney or urinary bladder in rodents, and some other substances , Lyon, , France : World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer .
  • IARC . 1999b . IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans Volume 4. Some aromatic amines, hydrazine and related substances, N‐nitroso compounds and miscellaneous alkylating agents , Lyon, , France : World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer .
  • IPCS . 1978 . Nitrates, nitrites and N‐nitroso compounds. Environmental Health Criteria 5 , Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • Johnson , R. , Pankow , J. , Bender , D. , Price , C. and Zogorski , J. 2000 . MTBE to what extent will past releases contaminate community water supply wells? . Environmental Science and Technology , 34 ( 9 ) : 210A – 216A .
  • Karp , B. E. and Engberg , J. 2004 . Comment on: Does the use of antibiotics in food animals pose a risk to human health? A critical review of published data. . Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy , 54 ( 1 ) : 273 – 4 .
  • Keene , D. 2004 . The right view everything's dangerous. . The Hill , May 4
  • Koch , B. , Dale , M. , Zogorski , J. , Delzer , G. , Grady , S. , Ivahnenko , T. , Clawges , R. and Tratnyek , P. 2005 . Occurrence of MTBE and VOCs in drinking water sources of the United States AwwaRF Report: 214
  • Kriebel , D. , Tickner , J. A. , Epstein , P. , Lemons , J. , Levins , T. , Loechler , E. L. , Quinn , M. , Rudel , R. , Schettler , T. and Stoto , M. 2001 . The precautionary principle in environmental science. . Environmental Health Perspectives , 109 ( 9 ) : 871 – 6 .
  • Lieberman , A. J. and Kwon , S. C. 1998 . Facts versus fears: A review of the greatest unfounded health scares of recent times , New York : American Council on Science and Health .
  • Lyons , G. , Ahrens , A. and Salter‐Green , E. 2000 . An environmentalist's vision of operationalizing the precautionary principle in the management of chemicals. . International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health , 6 : 289 – 95 .
  • Marchant , G. E. and Mossman , K. L. 2002 . Arbitrary and capricious. The precautionary principle in European Union courts , Washington, DC : The AEI Press .
  • Marshall , E. 1991 . A is for apple, alar, and …alarmist? . Science , 254 ( 5028 ) : 20 – 23 .
  • McCutcheon , J. W. 1984 . Nitrosamines in bacon: A case study of balancing risks. . Public Health Reports , 99 : 360 – 4 .
  • Morris , J , ed. 2000 . “ Defining the precautionary principle. ” . In Rethinking risk and the precautionary principle , Oxford : Butterworth‐Heinemann .
  • National Science and Technology Council . 1997 . Interagency assessment of oxygenated fuels , Washington, DC : Office of Science and Technology Policy, National Science and Technology Council .
  • National Women's Health Network . 2005 . Fact Sheet HRT Overview. . http://www.womenshealthnetwork.org/publications/fact_details.php?fid = 22
  • Needleman , H. L. , Gunnoe , C. , Leviton , A. , Peresie , H. , Maher , C. and Barret , P. 1979 . Deficits in psychological and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. . New England Journal of Medicine , 300 ( 13 ) : 689 – 95 .
  • Negin , E. 1996 . The alar ‘scare’ was for real. . Columbian Journal Review. , September/October. http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url = /96/5/alar.asp
  • Nilsson , A. 1990 . Saving the ozone layer: A global task , Stockholm : The Swedish Society for the Conservation of Nature .
  • NTP . 2005 . 11th Report on Carcinogens , NC : US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program . Research Triangle Park
  • Peacock , K. A. 1996 . Living with the earth , Toronto : Harcourt Brace and Company Canada, Ltd .
  • Phillips , I. , Casewell , M. , Cox , T. , De Groot , B. , Friis , C. , Jones , R. , Nightingale , C. , Preston , R. and Waddell , J. 2004 . Does the use of antibiotics in food animals pose a risk to human health? A critical review of published data. . Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy , 53 ( 1 ) : 28 – 52 .
  • Pierson , M. D. and Smoot , L. A. 1982 . Nitrite, nitrite alternatives, and the control of Clostridium botulinum in cured meats. . Critical Review Food Science and Nutrition , 17 : 141 – 87 .
  • Putnam , S. W. and Wiener , J. B. 1995 . “ Seeking safe drinking water. ” . In Risk vs. risk tradeoffs in protecting public health and the environment , Edited by: Graham , J. D and Wiener , J. B . Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
  • Raffensperger , C. , Schettler , T. and Myers , N. 2000 . Precaution: Belief, regulatory system, and overarching principle. . International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health , 6 : 266 – 9 .
  • Raffensperger , C and Tickner , J. A , eds. 1999 . Protecting public health and the environment: Implementing the precautionary principle , Washington, DC : Island Press .
  • Rampton , S. and Stauber , J. 2001 . Trust us. We're experts! , New York : Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam: Penguin Putnam Inc .
  • Rosdahl , V. T and Pedersen , K. B , eds. 1998 . The Copenhagen Recommendations Report from the invitational EU Conference on The Microbial Threat Copenhagen, Denmark 9–10 September 1998 , Copenhagen, , Denmark : Ministry of Health & Ministry of Food Agriculture and Fisheries, Denmark .
  • Rosenberg , B. J. 1995 . Unintended consequences. Methods and Policy Report No. 13 Toxics Use Reduction Institute. University of Massachusetts, Lowell
  • Rosenberg , B. J. , Barbeau , E. M. , Moure‐Eraso , R. and Levenstein , C. 2001 . The work environment impact assessment: A methodologic framework for evaluating health‐based interventions. . American Journal of Industrial Medicine , 39 ( 2 ) : 218 – 26 .
  • Rossi , M. , Tickner , J. and Geiser , K. 2006 . Alternatives assessment framework of the Lowell Center for Sustainable Production. Version 1.0. 2006 , Lowell, MA : Lowell Center for Sustainable Production, University of Massachusetts, Lowell .
  • Sandin , P. , Peterson , M. , Hansson , S. O. , Rudén , C. and Juthe , A. 2002 . Five charges against the precautionary principle. . Journal of Risk Research , 5 ( 4 ) : 287 – 99 .
  • Schettler , T. 2005 . “ Early warnings: The history of DDT. ” . In Precautionary tools for reshaping environmental policy , Edited by: Myers , N and Raffensperger , C . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
  • Slovic , P. 1991 . “ Beyond numbers: A broader perspective on risk perception and risk communication. ” . In Acceptable evidence , Edited by: Mayo , D. G and Hollander , R. D . New York : Oxford University Press .
  • SOU . 1997 . SOU 1997:132 Commission on Antimicrobial Feed Additives, Ministry of Agriculture, Sweden
  • Squillace , P. J. , Zogorski , J. S. , Wilber , W. G. and Price , C. V. 1996 . Preliminary assessment of the occurrence and possible sources of MTBE in groundwater in the United States, 1993–1994. . Environmental Science and Technology , 30 : 1721 – 30 .
  • Thornøe , N. 2003 . Consequences of termination of AGP usage from broiler health and usage of antimicrobials for therapy and prophylaxis. Working Papers from the WHO International Review Panels Evaluation, Foulum Denmark 6–9 November 2002, World Health Organization
  • Tickner , J. A. 2002 . The precautionary principle and public health trade‐offs: Case study of West Nile virus. . Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 584 : 69 – 79 .
  • Tickner , J. A , ed. 2003 . Precaution, environmental science, and preventive public policy , Washington, DC : Island Press .
  • Tickner , J. A. and Gouveia‐Vigeant , T. 2005 . The 1991 cholera epidemic in Peru: Not a case of precaution gone awry. . Risk Analysis , 25 : 495 – 502 .
  • Tickner , J. A. and Kriebel , D. 2001 . Reenergizing public health through precaution. . American Journal of Public Health , 91 ( 9 ) : 1351 – 5 .
  • Tickner , J. A. , Kriebel , D. and Wright , S. 2003 . A compass for health: Rethinking precaution and its role in science and public health. . International Journal of Epidemiology , 32 : 489 – 92 .
  • Tollefson , L. 2004 . Factual errors in review article. . Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy , 54 ( 1 ) : 271
  • US EPA . 1997 . Drinking water advisory: Consumer acceptability advice and health effects analysis on methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). EPA822‐F‐97‐009;ODW 4304 , Washington, DC : Health and Ecological Criteria Division, Office of Science and Technology, Office of Water, US EPA .
  • US EPA . 2002 . “ Disinfection byproduct health effects ” . Tuesday, June 18th, 2002. US Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/enviro/html/icr/dbp_health.html
  • Wegener , H. C. , Bager , F. , Aarestrup , F. M. , Jensen , L. B. , Hammerum , A. M. and Pedersen , K. B. 1998 . The effect of the growth promoter virginiamycin on bacterial antimicrobial resistance development. Report from the Danish Veterinary Laboratory , Copenhagen : Ministeriet for Fødevare, Landbrug og Fiskeri Statens Veterinære Serumlaboratorium .
  • WHO . 1997 . The medical impact of antimicrobial use in food animals. Report of a WHO Meeting, October 13–17, in Berlin, Germany , Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • WHO . 2003 . Impacts of antimicrobial growth promoter termination in Denmark, Foulum Denmark 6–9 November 2002 , Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • Wierup , M. 2001 . The Swedish experience of the 1986 year ban of antimicrobial growth promoters, with special reference to animal health, disease prevention, productivity, and usage of antimicrobials. . Microbial Drug Resistance , 7 ( 2 ) : 183 – 90 .
  • Wildavsky , A. 1995 . But is it true? A citizen's guide to environmental health and safety issues , Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .
  • Wilson , M. 2004 . When environmental policy leads to occupational disease: A case study in the California vehicle repair industry. . Project summary available at http://www.turi.org/home/hot_topics/worker_health_and_safety/related_topics/pollution_and_occupational_policy/when_environmental_policy_leads_to_occupational_disease_a_case_study_in_the_california_vehicle_repair_industry
  • Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators . 2002 . Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women. . Journal of the American Medical Association , 288 : 321 – 33 .
  • Yost , P. 2004 . How the White House shelved MTBE ban. . Associated Press Online , 15 February

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.