13,932
Views
192
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The fake news game: actively inoculating against the risk of misinformation

&
Pages 570-580 | Received 16 Feb 2018, Accepted 18 Feb 2018, Published online: 26 Feb 2018

References

  • Allcott, H., and M. Gentzkow. 2017. “Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 31 (2): 211–236. doi:10.1257/jep.31.2.211.
  • Atkinson, J. 2005. “Metaspin: Demonisation of Media Manipulation.” Political Science 57 (2): 17–27. doi:10.1177/003231870505700203.
  • Bakir, V., and A. McStay. 2017. “Fake News and the Economy of Emotions: Problems, Causes, Solutions.” Digital Journalism 6 (2): 154–175. doi: 10.1080/21670811.2017.1345645.
  • Bakshy, E., S. Messing, and L. Adamic. 2015. “Exposure to Ideologically Diverse News and Opinion on Facebook.” Science 348: 1130–1132. doi:10.1126/science.aaa1160.
  • Banas, J. A., and G. Miller. 2013. “Inducing Resistance to Conspiracy Theory Propaganda: Testing Inoculation and Metainoculation Strategies.” Human Communication Research 39 (2): 184–207. doi:10.1111/hcre.12000.
  • Banas, J. A., and S. A. Rains. 2010. “A Meta-Analysis of Research on Inoculation Theory.” Communication Monographs 77 (3): 281–311. doi:10.1080/03637751003758193.
  • Barthel, M., A. Mitchell, and J. Holcomb. 2016. “Many Americans Believe Fake News Is Sowing Confusion.” Pew Research Center. http://www.journalism.org/2016/12/15/many-americans-believe-fake-news-is-sowing-confusion/.
  • Bode, L., and E. K. Vraga. 2015. “In Related News, That Was Wrong: The Correction of Misinformation through Related Stories Functionality in Social Media.” Journal of Communication 65 (4): 619–638. doi:10.1111/jcom.12166.
  • Boididou, C., S. Papadopoulos, L. Apostolidis, and Y. Kompatsiaris. 2017. “Learning to Detect Misleading Content on Twitter.” In ICMR 2017 – Proceedings of the 2017 ACM International Conference on Multimedia Retrieval, 278–286. doi:10.1145/3078971.3078979.10.1145/3078971
  • Bolsen, T., and J. N. Druckman. 2015. “Counteracting the Politicization of Science.” Journal of Communication 65 (5): 745–769. doi:10.1111/jcom.12171.
  • Bremner, C. 2018. “France Aims to Ban Fake News at Election Time.” The times. Accessed February 12. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/france-aims-to-ban-fake-news-at-election-time-jwspzjx83
  • Budak, C., D. Agrawal, and A. El Abbadi. 2011. “Limiting the Spread of Misinformation in Social Networks.” In Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on World Wide Web, 665–674, New York, NY, USA, ACM. doi:10.1145/1963405.1963499.
  • Cho, H.-C., and S. Abe. 2013. “Is Two-Tailed Testing for Directional Research Hypotheses Tests Legitimate?” Journal of Business Research, 66(9), 1261–1266. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2012.02.023.10.1016/j.jbusres.2012.02.023
  • COA. 2016. “Incidentenmeldingen COA Eerste Helft 2016.” Accessed August 30, 2017 https://www.coa.nl/nl/actueel/nieuws/incidentenmeldingen-coa-eerste-helft-2016
  • Compton, J. 2013. “Inoculation Theory.” In The SAGE Handbook of Persuasion: Developments in Theory and Practice, edited by J. P. Dillard and L. Shen. 2nd ed., 220–236. Thousand Oaks: Sage. doi:10.4135/9781452218410.
  • Compton, J., B. Jackson, and J. A. Dimmock. 2016. “Persuading Others to Avoid Persuasion: Inoculation Theory and Resistant Health Attitudes.” Frontiers in Psychology 7: 122.
  • Cook, J., S. Lewandowsky, and U. K. H. Ecker. 2017. “Neutralizing Misinformation through Inoculation: Exposing Misleading Argumentation Techniques Reduces Their Influence.” PLOS ONE 12 (5): 1–21. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0175799.
  • Cooke, N. A. 2017. “Posttruth, Truthiness, and Alternative Facts: Information Behavior and Critical Information Consumption for a New Age.” Library Quarterly 87 (3): 211–221. doi:10.1086/692297.
  • D’Angelo, P., and J. A. Kuypers. 2009. Doing News Framing Analysis: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives, 1–13. Abingdon: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203864463.
  • Entman, R. M. 1993. “Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm.” Journal of Communication 43 (4): 51–58. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x.
  • Flaxman, S., S. Goel, and J. M. Rao. 2016. “Filter Bubbles, Echo Chambers, and Online News Consumption.” Public Opinion Quarterly 80 (1): 298–320. doi:10.1093/poq/nfw006.
  • Fletcher, R., and R. K. Nielsen. 2017. “Are News Audiences Increasingly Fragmented? A Cross-National Comparative Analysis of Cross-Platform News Audience Fragmentation and Duplication.” Journal of Communication 67 (4): 476–498. doi:10.1111/jcom.12315.
  • Flynn, D. J., B. Nyhan, and J. Reifler. 2017. “The Nature and Origins of Misperceptions: Understanding False and Unsupported Beliefs about Politics.” Political Psychology 38: 127–150. doi:10.1111/pops.12394.
  • Greussing, E., and H. G. Boomgaarden. 2017. “Shifting the Refugee Narrative? An Automated Frame Analysis of Europe’s 2015 Refugee Crisis.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 43 (11 ): 1749 –1774. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2017.1282813.
  • Groshek, J., and K. Koc-Michalska. 2017. “Helping Populism Win? Social Media Use, Filter Bubbles, and Support for Populist Presidential Candidates in the 2016 US Election Campaign.” Information Communication and Society 20 (9): 1389–1407.10.1080/1369118X.2017.1329334
  • Gu, L., V. Kropotov, and F. Yarochkin. 2017. The Fake News Machine: How Propagandists Abuse the Internet and Manipulate the Public. TrendLabs Research Paper. https://documents.trendmicro.com/assets/white_papers/wp-fake-news-machine-how-propagandists-abuse-the-internet.pdf.
  • Guess, A., B. Lyons, B. Nyhan, and J. Reifler. (2018). Avoiding the Echo Chamber about Echo Chambers: Why Selective Exposure to Like-minded Political News is Less Prevalent than you Think. Miami, FL: Knight Foundation White Paper, Knight Foundation.
  • Hansen, H. 2017. “Fallacies.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017), edited by E. N. Zalta. Stanford, CA: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=fallacies.
  • Harriss, L., and K. Raymer. 2017. Online Information and Fake News (PostNotes). PostNote. http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/POST-PN-0559#fullreport.
  • Higgins, K. 2016. “Post-Truth: A Guide for the Perplexed.” Nature 540 (7631): 9. doi:10.1038/540009a.
  • Hofstadter, R. 1964. The Paranoid Style in American Politics. New York: Random House.
  • Jacobson, S., E. Myung, and S. L. Johnson. 2016. “Open Media or Echo Chamber: The Use of Links in Audience Discussions on the Facebook Pages of Partisan News Organizations.” Information, Communication & Society 19 (7): 875–891. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2015.1064461.
  • Jones, L. 1952. “Tests of Hypotheses: One-Sided vs. Two-Sided Alternatives.” Psychological Bulletin 49 (1): 43–46. doi:10.1037/h0056832.
  • Kucharski, A. 2016. “Post-Truth: Study Epidemiology of Fake News.” Nature 540 (7634): 525.10.1038/540525a
  • Kuklinski, J. H., P. J. Quirk, J. Jerit, D. Schwieder, and R. F. Rich. 2000. “Misinformation and the Currency of Democratic Citizenship.” Journal of Politics 62 (3): 790–816.10.1111/0022-3816.00033
  • Lazer, D., M. Baum, N. Grinberg, L. Friedland, K. Joseph, W. Hobbs, and C. Mattsson 2017. Combating Fake News: An Agenda for Research and Action. https://shorensteincenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Combating-Fake-News-Agenda-for-Research-1.pdf.
  • Lewandowsky, S., U. K. Ecker, and J. Cook. 2017. “Beyond Misinformation: Understanding and Coping with the “Post-Truth” Era.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 6 (4): 353–369.10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008
  • Löfstedt, R. 2005. Risk Management in Post-Trust Societies. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.10.1057/9780230503946
  • Marwick, A., and R. Lewis. 2017. “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online.” Data & Society Research Institute. Accessed December 23, 2017. https://datasociety.net/pubs/oh/DataAndSociety_MediaManipulationAndDisinformationOnline.pdf
  • Matthews, R., R. Wasserstein, and D. Spiegelhalter. 2017. “The ASA’s P-Value Statement, One Year on.” Significance 14 (2): 38–41.10.1111/sign.2017.14.issue-2
  • McCarthy, M., and R. Carter. 2004. “‘There’s Millions of Them’: Hyperbole in Everyday Conversation.” Journal of Pragmatics 36 (2): 149–184.10.1016/S0378-2166(03)00116-4
  • McGuire, W. J. 1964. “Some Contemporary Approaches.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 1: 191–229. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60052-0.
  • McGuire, W. J., and D. Papageorgis. 1961. “The Relative Efficacy of Various Types of Prior Belief-Defense in Producing Immunity against Persuasion.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 62: 327–337.10.1037/h0042026
  • McGuire, W. J., and D. Papageorgis. 1962. “Effectiveness of Forewarning in Developing Resistance to Persuasion.” Public Opinion Quarterly 26 (1): 24–34.10.1086/267068
  • Mitchell, A., J. Gottfried, M. Barthel, and E. Shearer. 2016. Pathways to News. http://www.journalism.org/2016/07/07/pathways-to-news/.
  • Mustafaraj, E., and P. T. Metaxas. 2017. “The Fake News Spreading Plague: Was It Preventable?” In WebSci 2017 – Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Web Science Conference, 235–239. doi:10.1145/3091478.3091523.10.1145/3091478
  • Niederdeppe, J., S. E. Gollust, and C. L. Barry. 2014. “Inoculation in Competitive Framing Examining Message Effects on Policy Preferences.” Public Opinion Quarterly 78 (3): 634–655. doi:10.1093/poq/nfu026.
  • Oxford Dictionaries. 2016. “Word of the Year 2016 is …” Accessed August 30, 2017. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/word-of-the-year/word-of-the-year-2016
  • Papageorgis, D., and W. J. McGuire. 1961. “The Generality of Immunity to Persuasion Produced by Pre-Exposure to Weakened Counterarguments.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 62: 475–481.10.1037/h0048430
  • Parker, K. A., S. A. Rains, and B. Ivanov. 2016. “Examining the “Blanket of Protection” Conferred by Inoculation: The Effects of Inoculation Messages on the Cross-Protection of Related Attitudes.” Communication Monographs 83 (1): 49–68.10.1080/03637751.2015.1030681
  • Pennebaker, J. W., R. L. Boyd, K. Jordan, and K. Blackburn. 2015. The Development and Psychometric Properties of LIWC2015. Austin: University of Texas.
  • Pfau, M. 1995. “Designing Messages for Behavioral Inoculation.” In Designing Health Messages: Approaches from Communication Theory and Public Health Practice, edited by E. Maybach and R. Louiselle Parrott, 99–113. Thousand Oaks: Sage.10.4135/9781452233451
  • Pfau, M., and M. Burgoon. 1988. “Inoculation in Political Campaign Communication.” Human Communication Research 15 (1): 91–111. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1988.tb00172.x.
  • Pfau, M., H. C. Kenski, M. Nitz, and J. Sorenson. 1990. “Efficacy of Inoculation Strategies in Promoting Resistance to Political Attack Messages: Application to Direct Mail.” Communication Monographs 57 (1): 25–43. doi:10.1080/03637759009376183.
  • Pfau, M., J. Tusing, A. F. Koerner, W. Lee, L. C. Godbold, L. J. Penaloza, and Y. Y.-H. Hong. 1997. “Enriching the Inoculation Construct: The Role of Critical Components in the Process of Resistance.” Human Communication Research 24 (2): 187–215. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1997.tb00413.x.
  • Pfau, M., A. Szabo, J. Anderson, J. Morrill, J. Zubric, and H.-H. H-Wan. 2001. “The Role and Impact of Affect in the Process of Resistance to Persuasion.” Human Communication Research 27 (2): 216–252. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2001.tb00781.x.
  • Pfau, M., M. M. Haigh, J. Sims, and S. Wigley. 2007. “The Influence of Corporate Front-Group Stealth Campaigns.” Communication Research 34 (1): 73–99. doi:10.1177/0093650206296083.
  • Pfau, M., S. M. Semmler, L. Deatrick, A. Mason, G. Nisbett, L. Lane, A. Aaaa, and J. Banas. 2009. “Nuances about the Role and Impact of Affect in Inoculation.” Communication Monographs 76 (1): 73–98.10.1080/03637750802378807
  • Rodríguez Pérez, C. 2017. “News Framing and Media Legitimacy: An Exploratory Study of the Media Coverage of the Refugee Crisis in the European Union.” Communication and Society 30 (3): 169–184 doi:10.15581/003.30.3.169-184.10.15581/003.30.3.169-184
  • Rucker, D. D., K. J. Preacher, Z. L. Tormala, and R. E. Petty. 2011. “Mediation Analysis in Social Psychology: Current Practices and New Recommendations.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 5 (6): 359–371. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00355.x.
  • Sears, D. O. 1986. “College Sophomores in the Laboratory: Influences of a Narrow Data Base on Social Psychology’s View of Human Nature.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (3): 515.10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.515
  • Sears, D. O., and C. L. Funk. 1999. “Evidence of the Long-Term Persistence of Adults’ Political Predispositions.” The Journal of Politics 61 (1): 1–28. doi:10.2307/2647773.
  • Select Committee on Communications. 2017. Growing Up With the Internet (HL Paper No. 130). https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201617/ldselect/ldcomuni/130/13002.htm
  • Sethi, R. J. (2017). “Crowdsourcing the Verification of Fake News and Alternative Facts.” In Proceedings of the 28th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media, 315–316, New York, USA, ACM. doi:10.1145/3078714.3078746.
  • Shao, C., G. Luca Ciampaglia, O. Varol, A. Flammini, and F. Menczer. 2017. The Spread of Fake News by Social Bots. arXiv:1707.07592
  • Silverman, C., and J. Singer-Vine. 2016. “Most Americans Who See Fake News Believe It, New Survey Says.” https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/fake-news-survey?utm_term=.crb9mRqA8#.xuXlQbZLg.
  • van der Linden, S. 2015. “The Conspiracy-Effect: Exposure to Conspiracy Theories (about Global Warming) Decreases pro-Social Behavior and Science Acceptance.” Personality and Individual Differences 87: 171–173.10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.045
  • van der Linden, S. 2017. “Beating the Hell out of Fake News.” Ethical Record: The Proceedings of the Conway Hall Ethical Society 122 (6): 4–7.
  • van der Linden, S., A. Leiserowitz, S. Rosenthal, and E. Maibach. 2017. “Inoculating the Public Against Misinformation About Climate Change.” Global Challenges 1 (2): 1600008. doi:10.1002/gch2.201600008.
  • van der Linden, S., E. Maibach, J. Cook, A. Leiserowitz, and S. Lewandowsky. 2017. “Inoculating Against Misinformation.” Science 358 (6367): 1141–1142.
  • Vosoughi, S., M. Mohsenvand, and D. Roy. 2017. “Rumor Gauge: Predicting the Veracity of Rumors on Twitter.” ACM Transactions on Knowledge Discovery from Data 11 (4): 50. doi:10.1145/3070644.
  • Walton, D. 1998. Ad Hominem Arguments. Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of Alabama Press.
  • Wood, M. L. M. 2007. “Rethinking the Inoculation Analogy: Effects on Subjects with Differing Preexisting Attitudes.” Human Communication Research 33 (3): 357–378. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00303.x.
  • World Economic Forum 2013. “Outlook on the Global Agenda 2014.” http://reports.weforum.org/outlook-14/.
  • YouGov 2017. "C4 Study Reveals Only 4% Surveyed Can Identify True or Fake News. Accessed August 29, 2017. http://www.channel4.com/info/press/news/c4-study-reveals-only-4-surveyed-can-identify-true-or-fake-news
  • Zeitel-Bank, N. 2017. “Dimensions of Polity, Politics and Policy in the Austrian Media System: Media Coverage of the “Refugee/Asylum Seeker Crisis”.” International Journal of Media and Cultural Politics 13 (1–2): 91–109. doi:10.1386/macp.13.1-2.91_1.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.