How to communicate cyber-risk? An examination of behavioral recommendations in cybersecurity crises

References

• Agnes, M. 2017. Equifax’s crisis response strategy: What you need to know. Forbes.com. Retrieved from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/melissaagnes/2017/09/10/equifaxs-crisis-response-strategy-what-you-need-to-know/#582b8b191728.
   Google Scholar
• Avery, E., and S. Park. 2016. “Effects of Crisis Efficacy on Intentions to Follow Directives during Crisis.” Journal of Public Relations Research 28(2):72–86. doi:10.1080/1062726X.2016.1165681.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babin, L. A., and A. C. Burns. 1997. “Effects of Print Ad Pictures and Copy Containing Instructions to Imagine on Mental Imagery That Mediates Attitudes.” Journal of Advertising 26(3):33–44. doi:10.1080/00913367.1997.10673527.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. 1977. “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change.” Psychological Review 84(2):191–215. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett, L. 1998. “Discrete Emotions or Dimensions? The Role of Relevance Focus and Arousal Focus.” Cognition and Emotion 12(4):579–599. doi:10.1080/026999398379574.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basil, M., D. Basil, S. Deshpande, and A. M. Lavack. 2013. “Applying the Extended Parallel Process Model to Workplace Safety Messages.” Health Communication 28(1):29–39. doi:10.1080/10410236.2012.708632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger, J. 2011. “Arousal Increases Social Transmission of Information.” Psychological Science 22(7):891–893. doi:10.1177/0956797611413294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berinsky, A. J., G. A. Huber, and G. S. Lenz. 2012. “Evaluating Online Labor Markets for Experimental Research: Amazon.com’s Mechanical Turk.” Political Analysis 20(3):351–368. doi:10.1093/pan/mpr057.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borden, J. 2016. “Effects of National Identity in Transnational Crises: Implications of Social Identity Theory for Attribution and Crisis Communications.” International Journal of Communication (10)
   Google Scholar
• Busby, J. S., B. Green, and D. Hutchison. 2017. “Analysis of Affordance, Time, and Afaptation in the Assessment of Industrial Control System Cybersecurity Risk.” Risk Analysis 37(7):1298–1314. doi:10.1111/risa.12681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, C. 2016. “Behavioral Recommendations in Health Research News as Cues to Action: Self-Relevancy and Self-Efficacy Processes.” Journal of Health Communication 21(8):954–968. doi:10.1080/10810730.2016.1204377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, M., R. A. Bell, and L. D. Taylor. 2016. “Narrator Point of View and Persuasion in Health Narratives: The Role of Protagonist-Reader Similarity, Identification, and Self-Referencing.” Journal of Health Communication 21(8):908–918. doi:10.1080/10810730.2016.1177147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cisco. 2017. Closing the cybersecurity knowledge gap in the boardroom. Cisco Systems. San Jose, CA: Cisco. Retrieved from: https://www.presidio.com/resources/files/1313/white-paper-c11-739745.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Coombs, W. T. 2015. Ongoing Crisis Communication: Planning, Managing, and Responding. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Coombs, W. T., and S. Holladay. 2007. “The Negative Communication Dynamic: Exploring the Impact.” Journal of Communication Management 11(4):300–312. doi:10.1108/13632540710843913.
   Google Scholar
• Dahlstrom, M., A. Dudo, and D. Brossard. 2012. “Precision of Information, Sensational Information, and Self-Efficacy Information as Message-Level Variables Affecting Risk Perceptions.” Risk Analysis 32(1):155–166. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01641.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Hoog, N., W. Stroebe, and J. de Wit. 2007. “The Impact of Vulnerability to and Severity of a Health Risk on Processing and Acceptance of Fear-Arousing Communications: A Meta-Analysis.” Review of General Psychology 11(3):258–285. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.11.3.258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goei, R., A. R. Boyson, S. K. Lyon-Callo, C. Schott, E. Wasilevich, and S. Cannarile. 2010. “An Examination of EPPM Predictions When Threat Is Perceived Externally: An Asthma Intervention with School Workers.” Health Communication 25(4):333–344. doi:10.1080/10410231003775164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodall, C. E., and P. Reed. 2013. “Threat and Efficacy Uncertainty in News Coverage about Bed Bugs as Unique Predictors of Information Seeking and Avoidance: An Extension of the EPPM.” Health Communication 28(1):63–71. doi:10.1080/10410236.2012.689096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. 2013. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. New York, NY: The Gulford Press.
   Google Scholar
• He, M., L. Devine, and J. Zhuang. 2018. “Perspectives on Cybersecurity Information Sharing among Multiple Stakeholders Using a Decision-Theoretic Approach.” Risk Analysis 38(2):215–225. doi:10.1111/risa.12878.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, H. 2011. “An Extension of the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) in Television Health News: The Influence of Health Consciousness on Individual Message Processing and Acceptance.” Health Communication 26(4):343–353. doi:10.1080/10410236.2010.551580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, S., D. J. O'Keefe, S. Jacobs, and D. E. Brashers. 1989. “Messages as Replications: Toward a Message-Centered Design Strategy.” Communication Monographs 56(4):364–384. doi:10.1080/03637758909390270.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kavussanu, M., and I. D. Boardley. 2009. “The Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior in Sport Scale.” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 31:97–117. doi:10.1123/jsep.31.1.97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, H. K., and J. Niederdeppe. 2013. “The Role of Emotional Response during an H1N1 Influenza Pandemic on a College Campus.” Journal of Public Relations Research 25(1):30–50. doi:10.1080/1062726X.2013.739100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuang, K., and H. Cho. 2016. “Delivering Vaccination Messages via Interactive Channels: Examining the Interaction among Threat, Response Efficacy, and Interactivity in Risk Communication.” Journal of Risk Research 19(4):476–495. doi:10.1080/13669877.2014.988284.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachlan, K. A., J. Burke, P. R. Spence, and D. Griffin. 2009. “Risk Perceptions, Race, and Hurricane Katrina.” Howard Journal of Communications 20(3):295–309. doi:10.1080/10646170903070035.
   Google Scholar
• Lang, P. J. 1995. “The Emotion Probe: Studies of Motivation and Attention.” American Psychologist 50(5):372–385. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.50.5.372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S. 1991. Emotion and Adaption. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., and S. Folkman. 1984. Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York, NY: Sringer.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, S., H. Hwang, R. Hawkins, and S. Pingree. 2008. “Interplay of Negative Emotion and Health Self-Efficacy on the Use of Health Information and Its Outcomes.” Communication Research 35(3):358–381.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, H., and S. Park. 2016. “Third-Person Effect and Pandemic Flu: The Role of Severity, Self-Efficacy Method Mentions, and Message Source.” Journal of Health Communication 21(12):1244–1250. doi:10.1080/10810730.2016.1245801.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine, L. 1996. “The Anatomy of Disappointment: A Naturalistic Test of Appraisal Models of Sadness, Anger, and Hope.” Cognition and Emotion 10(4):337–360. doi:10.1080/026999396380178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maloney, E., M. Lapinski, and K. Witte. 2011. “Fear Appeals and Persuasion: A Review and Update of the Extended Parallel Process Model.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 5(4):206–219. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00341.x.
   Google Scholar
• Nabi, R. L. 2002. “Anger, Fear, Uncertainty, and Attitudes: A Test of the Cognitive-Functional Model.” Communication Monographs 69(3):204–216. doi:10.1080/03637750216541.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nan, X., K. Madden, A. Richards, C. Holt, M. Wang, and K. Tracy. 2016. “Message Framing, Perceived Susceptibility, and Intentions to Vaccinate Children against HPV among African American Parents.” Health Communication 31(7):798–805. doi:10.1080/10410236.2015.1005280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, D. J. 2003. “Message Properties, Mediating States, and Manipulation Checks: Claims, Evidence, and Data Analysis in Experimental Persuasive Message Effects Research.” Communication Theory 13(3):251–274.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeves, B., and S. Geiger. 2011. “Designing Experiments that Assess Psychological Responses to Media Messages.” In Measuring Psychological Responses to Media, edited by Annie Lang, 165–180. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Rimal, R. N. 2000. “Closing the Knowledge-Behavior Gap in Health Promotion: The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy.” Health Communication 12(3):219–237. doi:10.1207/S15327027HC1203_01.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rimal, R. N. 2001. “Perceived Risk and Self-Efficacy as Motivators: Understanding Individuals’ Long-Term Use of Health Information.” Journal of Communication 51(4):633–654. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2001.tb02900.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberto, A., C. Goodall, and K. Witte. 2009. “Raising the Alarm and Calming Fears: Perceived Threat and Efficacy During Risk and Crisis”. In Handbook of Risk and Crisis Communication, edited by R. Health and D. O’Hair, 287–303. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. W. 1975. “A Protection Motivation Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change.” The Journal of Psychology 91(1):93–114. doi:10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shane, S.,. N. Perlroth, and D. Sancer. 2017. Security breach and spilled secrets have shaken the N.S.A. to its core. nytimes.com. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/12/us/nsa-shadow-brokers.html.
   Google Scholar
• So, J. 2013. “A Further Extension of the Extended Parallel Process Model (E-EPPM): Implications of Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotion and Dispositional Coping.” Health Communication 28(1):72–83. doi:10.1080/10410236.2012.708633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C., and L. Kirby. 2009. “Putting Appraisal in Context: Toward a Relational Model of Appraisal and Emotion.” Cognition and Emotion 23(7):1352–1372. doi:10.1080/02699930902860386.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C., and R. Lazarus. 1993. “Appraisal Components, Core Relational Themes, and the Emotions.” Cognition and Emotion 7(3–4):233–269. doi:10.1080/02699939308409189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulmer, R., T. Sellnow, and M. Seeger. 2019. Effective Crisis Communication: Moving from Crisis to Opportunity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Verroen, S., J. Gutteling, and P. Vries. 2013. “Enhancing Self-Protective Behavior: Efficacy Beliefs and Peer Feedback in Risk Communication.” Risk Analysis 33(7):1252–1264. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01924.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vos, S., J. Sutton, Y. Yu, S. Renshaw, M. Olson, C. Gibson, and C. Butts. 2018. “Retweeting Risk Communication: The Role of Threat and Efficacy.” Risk Analysis 38(12):2580–2598. doi:10.1111/risa.13140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. 1992. “Putting the Fear Back into Fear Appeals: The Extended Parallel Process Model.” Communication Monographs 59(4):329–349. doi:10.1080/03637759209376276.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. 1994. “Fear Control and Danger Control: A Test of the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM).” Communication Monographs 61(2):113–134. doi:10.1080/03637759409376328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K., and M. Allen. 2000. “A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns.” Health Education and Behavior 27:591–615. doi:10.1177/109019810002700506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K., K. A. Cameron, J. K. McKeon, and J. M. Berkowitz. 1996. “Predicting Risk Behaviors: Development and Validation of a Diagnostic Scale.” Journal of Health Communication 1(4):317–341. doi:10.1080/108107396127988.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang, X., J. Borden, and S. Kim. 2018. “Understanding Publics’ Post-Crisis Social Media Engagement Behaviors: An Examination of Antecedents and Mediators.” Telematics and Informatics 35(8):2133–2146. doi:10.1016/j.tele.2018.07.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X. A., and S. Kim. 2016. “An Examination of Consumer–Company Identification as a Key Predictor of Consumer Responses in Corporate Crisis.” Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 25 (4):232–243. doi:10.1111/1468-5973.12147.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X., and R. Shay. 2018. “An Examination of Antecedents to Perceived Community Resilience in Disaster Post-Crisis Communication.” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 96 (1):264–287. doi:10.1177/1077699018793612.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar